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Preface for Instructors |
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My decision to write Child Development was inspired by a wealth of professional and personal experiences. First and foremost were the interests and needs of hundreds of students of child development with whom I have worked in more than three decades of college teaching. I aimed for a text that is intellectually stimulating, that provides depth as well as breadth of coverage, that portrays the complexities of child development with clarity and excitement, and that is relevant and useful in building a bridge from theory and research to children’s everyday lives.
Today, Child Development reaches around the globe, with editions published in five languages: English, Chinese, Japanese, Russian, and Spanish. Instructor and student enthusiasm for the book not only has been among my greatest sources of pride and satisfaction, but also has inspired me to rethink and improve each edition. I am honored and humbled to have entrusted to me the awesome responsibility of introducing the field of child development to so many students. The seventeen years since Child Development first appeared have been a period of unprecedented expansion and change in theory and research. This seventh edition represents these rapid transformations, with a wealth of new content and teaching tools:
Diverse pathways of change are highlighted. Investigators have reached broad consensus that variations in biological makeup, everyday tasks, and the people who support children in mastery of those tasks lead to wide individual differences in children’s paths of change and resulting competencies. This edition pays more attention to variability in development and to recent theories—including ecological, sociocultural, and dynamic systems—that attempt to explain it. Multicultural and cross-cultural findings, including international comparisons, are enhanced throughout the text.
The complex, bidirectional relationship between biology and environment is given greater attention. Accumulating evidence on development of the brain, motor skills, cognitive and language competencies, temperament, and developmental problems underscores the way biological factors emerge in, are modified by, and share power with experience. The interconnection between biology and environment is revisited throughout the text narrative and in the Biology and Environment boxes with new and updated topics.
Inclusion of interdisciplinary research is expanded. The move toward viewing thoughts, feelings, and behavior as an integrated whole, affected by a wide array of influences in biology, social context, and culture, has motivated developmental researchers to strengthen their ties with other fields of psychology and with other disciplines. Topics and findings included in this edition increasingly reflect the contributions of educational psychology, social psychology, healthy psychology, clinical psychology, neuropsychology, biology, pediatrics, sociology, anthropology, social welfare, and other fields.
The links between theory, research, and applications—a theme of this book since its inception—are strengthened. As researchers intensify their efforts to generate findings relevant to real-life situations, I have placed even greater weight on social policy issues and sound theory- and research-based practices. Further applications are provided in the Applying What We Know tables, which give students concrete ways of building bridges between their learning and the real world.
Expanded coverage of Canadian content offers an integrated North American representation of the field. With its contemporary North American perspective, the text greatly expands students’ opportunity to learn more about social and cultural contexts for development and the powerful impact of public policies— especially in the realms of health and education—on children’s lives. Canadian research and examples are included throughout the text.
The role of active student learning is made more explicit. Ask Yourself questions at the end of each major section have been thoroughly revised and expanded to promote four approaches to engaging actively with the subject matter: Review, Apply, Connect, and Reflect. The new Reflect questions help make the study of child development personally meaningful by encouraging students to take well-reasoned stands on controversial issues and to relate theory and research to their own lives.
The basic approach of this book has been shaped by my own professional and personal history as a teacher, researcher, and parent. It consists of seven philosophical ingredients that I regard as essential for students to emerge from a course with a thorough understanding of child development:
1. An understanding of major theories and the strengths and shortcomings of each. The first chapter begins by emphasizing that only knowledge of multiple theories can do justice to the richness of child development. In each topical domain, I present a variety of theoretical perspectives, indicate how each highlights previously overlooked facets of development, and discuss research that evaluates it. If one or two theories have emerged as especially prominent in a particular area, I indicate why, in terms of the theory’s broad explanatory power. Consideration of contrasting theories also serves as the context for an evenhanded analysis of many controversial issues throughout the text.
2. An appreciation of research strategies for investigating child development. To evaluate theories, students need a firm grounding in research methods and designs. I devote an entire chapter to a description and critique of research strategies. Throughout the book, numerous studies are discussed in sufficient detail for students to use what they have learned to critically assess the findings, conclusions, and implications of research.
3. Knowledge of both the sequence of child development and the processes that underlie it. Students are provided with a description of the organized sequence of development along with processes of change. An understanding of process—how complex combinations of biological and environmental events produce development—has been the focus of most recent research. Accordingly, the text reflects this emphasis. But new information about the timetable of change has also emerged. In many ways, children have proved to be far more competent than they were believed to be in the past. Current evidence on the sequence and timing of development, along with its implications for process, is presented throughout the book.
4. An appreciation of the impact of context and culture on child development. A wealth of research indicates that children live in rich physical and social contexts that affect all aspects of development. In each chapter, the student travels to distant parts of the world as I review a growing body of cross-cultural evidence. The text narrative also discusses many findings on socio-economically and ethnically diverse children within the United States and Canada, and children with varying abilities and disabilities. Besides highlighting the role of immediate settings, such as family, neighborhood, and school, I underscore the impact of larger social structures—societal values, laws, and government programs—on children’s well being.
5. An understanding of the joint contributions of biology and environment to development. The field recognizes more powerfully than ever before the interaction of hereditary/constitutional and environmental factors—that these contributions to development combine in complex ways and cannot be separated in a simple manner. Numerous examples of how biological dispositions can be maintained as well as transformed by social contexts are presented throughout the book.
6. A sense of the interdependency of all aspects of development—physical, cognitive, emotional, and social. Every chapter takes an integrated approach to understanding children. I show how physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development are interwoven. Within the text narrative and in a special series of Ask Yourself Connect questions at the end of major sections, students are referred to other parts of the book to deepen their grasp of relationships among various aspects of change.
7. An appreciation of the interrelatedness of theory, research, and applications. Throughout this book, I emphasize that theories of child development and the research stimulated by them provide the foundation for sound, effective practices with children. The links between theory, research, and applications are reinforced by an organizational format in which theory and research are presented first, followed by practical implications. In addition, a current focus in the field—harnessing child development knowledge to shape social policies that support children’s needs—is reflected in every chapter. The text addresses the current condition of children in the United States, Canada, and around the world, and shows how theory and research have sparked successful interventions.
In this edition I continue to represent a rapidly transforming contemporary literature with theory and research from more than 1,800 new citations. Cutting-edge topics throughout the text underscore the book’s major themes. Here is a sampling:
Chapter 1: Introduction to emerging adulthood, a new period of development that extends adolescence · New historical findings on childhood as a separate phase of life in medieval Europe · Updated Biology and Environment box on resilience · Updated consideration of Vygotsky’s view of development · Revised section on child development and social policy · Updated indicators on the status of children in the United States and Canada · New Social Issues box on welfare reform, poverty, and child development, illustrating the role of research in designing policies that safeguard children’s well-being
Chapter 2: New examples of systematic observation, including the time-sampling method of collecting data · Enhanced consideration of the strengths of structured interviews · Revised discussion of the validity of research designs, including internal and external validity · New examples of correlational research · New Biology and Environment box with a field experiment addressing the influence of musical experiences on children’s intelligence · New example of a natural, or quasi-, experiment · Updated section on ethics in research on children
Chapter 3: · Updated discussion of basic genetics · Enhanced consideration of fragile X syndrome · Updated Social Issues box on the pros and cons of reproductive technologies, including new techniques and related ethical concerns · Updated consideration of the implications of the Human Genome Project for development · New findings on the relationship of prenatal activity level to childhood temperament · New Biology and Environment box on the prenatal environment and health in later life · New evidence on long-term consequences of emotional stress during pregnancy · New findings on older maternal age and prenatal and birth complications · New evidence on developmental consequences of anoxia at birth · Updated discussion of preterm and low-birth-weight infants · Enhanced discussion of environmental influences on gene expression
Chapter 4: Updated Social Issues box on sudden infant death syndrome · Enhanced section on infant crying · Revised and updated section on habituation · New evidence on infants’ attraction to motion and persisting memory for the movements of objects and people · New findings on newborn imitation in humans and chimpanzees · Recent evidence that babies reach with their feet before they reach with their hands · New findings on infant pain perception · Updated findings on development of balance · Revised and expanded section on hearing, including infants as statistical analyzers of the speech stream · New evidence on how intermodal stimulation supports infants’ efforts to make sense of language · Expanded consideration of early face perception · Revised and updated section on object perception
Chapter 5: Enhanced consideration of sex differences in motor skills · New section on consequences of participation in youth sports programs · Enhanced discussion of cultural variations in physical growth · Expanded attention to brain plasticity, including a new Biology and Environment box with insights from research on children and adults with brain damage · Introduction to the field of developmental cognitive neuroscience · Updated section on breastfeeding · New findings on causes and consequences of obesity · New evidence on adolescents’ sleep “phase delay” · New findings on the long-term consequences of early pubertal timing · New From Research to Practice box on parents’ discussions with teenagers about sexual issues · Expanded consideration of factors related to adolescent parenthood · New evidence on sex education, including findings on abstinence-only programs
Chapter 6: New evidence on infants’ understanding of object permanence · New evidence on toddlers’ capacity to engage in deferred imitation · Updated findings on the development of categorization in early childhood · Updated consideration of the development of cognitive maps, including cultural variations · Expanded treatment of the consequences of abstract thought, including development of decision making in adolescence · Expanded discussion of the core knowledge perspective · New Biology and Environment box on children’s understanding of death · New Cultural Influences box on how children learn by observing and participating in adult work
Chapter 7: Revised From Research to Practice box on speech–gesture mismatches as an indicator of readiness for learning · Revised Biology and Environment box on children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder · New findings on gains in cognitive inhibition, including related changes in brain functioning · New research on cultural tools and adult assistance that support children’s planning · Updated research on age-related changes in use of memory strategies · New research on the relationship between script and taxonomic categorization · New Biology and Environment box on infantile amnesia · New section on children’s eyewitness memory, with increased attention to factors influencing children’s suggestibility · Updated findings on development of emergent literacy · New findings on preschoolers’ understanding of number concepts and counting · New research on the role of metacognition in development of scientific reasoning in adolescence
Chapter 8: Updated description of Sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful intelligence · New section on commonalities and differences between intelligence tests, aptitude tests, and achievement tests · New research on culture, communication styles, and children’s mental test performance · New evidence on the impact of stereotype threat on the test taking of ethnic minority children · New Social Issues box on high-stakes testing · Enhanced consideration of the impact of early intervention for poverty-stricken children, with emphasis on long-term outcomes · Consideration of cultural variations in creativity
Chapter 9: New Biology and Environment box on deaf children inventing language · Updated information on language areas in the brain · Revised and updated evidence on a sensitive period for language development · Revised and expanded section on the interactionist perspective, including information-processing and social interactionist theories · New research on infants’ sensitivity to language sound patterns · New findings on the influence of phonological memory on word learning · New evidence on gradual mastery of grammar during the preschool years · New research indicating that parents provide preschoolers with many reformulations of grammatically incorrect expressions · New section on development of narratives · Revised and updated section on bilingualism, including a new Social Issues box on bilingual education in Canada and the United States
Chapter 10: Enhanced discussion of the development of discrete emotional expressions in infancy · New findings on cultural variations in self-conscious emotions · Expanded treatment of emotional self-regulation · New findings on infants’ social referencing using the parent’s voice · Revised and updated consideration of the stability of temperament · New findings on the temperamental dimension of effortful control · New findings on the influence of the nonshared environment on temperament, with special emphasis on parents’ tendency to emphasize differences between their children · Enhanced consideration of culture, maternal sensitivity, and attachment · New Cultural Influences box on the powerful role of paternal warmth in development · Expanded discussion of the influence of attachment security in infancy on later development · Updated evidence on the quality of American and Canadian child care
Chapter 11: Expanded and updated discussion of the development of self-awareness · New findings on children’s theory of mind, including development of second-order false belief in middle childhood · Updated Biology and Environment box on mindblindness and autism · Updated research on the relationship of self-esteem to competence at various activities · New findings on factors that support identity development, including family and peer influences · Updated Cultural Influences box on identity development among ethnic minority adolescents · Revised and updated Social Issues box on adolescent suicide, including incidence in industrialized nations and ethnic variations in the United States and Canada · New research on development of ethnic prejudices in childhood, including ways to reduce prejudice
Chapter 12: Updated research on the impact of harsh punishment on development · New Cultural Influences box on ethnic differences in the consequences of physical punishment · Enhanced consideration of Kohlberg’s stages as an extension of Piaget’s theory of the development of moral judgment · New findings on cultural variations in care-based moral reasoning · Updated From Research to Practice box on the development of civic responsibility · New section on religious involvement and moral development · New Cultural Influences box on children’s understanding of God · Revised and updated section on challenges to Kohlberg’s theory · Updated research on development of morally relevant self-control · Revised consideration of types of aggression, including distinctions between physical, verbal, and relational forms · New findings on relational aggression, including sex differences and implications for continuing conduct problems · Updated research on the implications of early-onset aggressive behavior for serious antisocial behavior and delinquency in adolescence
Chapter 13: Updated Cultural Influences box on Sweden’s commitment to gender equality · New From Research to Practice box on how children learn about gender through mother–child conversations · New findings on long-term consequences of parents’ gender-typed judgments of children’s abilities · Updated evidence on gender-segregated peer groups for children’s gender-typed attitudes and behaviors · New section on cultural variations in same-sex peer interactions · Updated research on cognitive contributions to gender constancy · New findings on development of gender identity in middle childhood · New research on declining sex differences in mathematical abilities
Chapter 14: Enhanced consideration of the influence of neighborhood conditions on parenting and children’s adjustment · Updated From Research to Practice box on the transition to parenthood · New evidence on the harmful impact of parental psychological control on children and youths · Expanded discussion of the bidirectional relationship between parenting and children’s attributes · Revised and updated section on parenting and adolescent autonomy · New section on adjustment problems of children and adolescents of affluent families · Updated section on ethnic variations in parenting beliefs and practices · New research on sibling relationships in middle childhood and adolescence · Revised and updated section on children of gay and lesbian families · New findings on children in never-married single-parent families · Updated consideration of long-term consequences of divorce and interventions for divorcing parents that help protect children’s well-being · New evidence on maternal employment and children’s adjustment, with special attention to the impact of workplace stressors · Updated section on child maltreatment, including the success of home visitation prevention programs
Chapter 15: · Enhanced consideration of development of peer sociability in early childhood, including the consequences of nonsocial play for adjustment · New findings on development of rough-and-tumble play and its relationship to aggression in adolescent boys · Revised and updated section on parenting and children’s peer relations · New findings on peer acceptance, including implications of peer-acceptance categories for bullying and victimization · New section on dating, including contributions of parent–child relationships and friendships to romantic ties and factors linked to dating violence · Revised and updated sections on television and computers, including benefits and risks for development · Revised and updated section on educational philosophies, including constructivist and social constructivist classrooms,and the community of learners approach · New evidence on relationships between children’s characteristics and teacher–student interactions, with implications for educational self-fulfilling prophecies · Updated research on homogeneous grouping and tracking in schools · Revised and updated consideration of the effectiveness of mainstreaming and full inclusion for children with learning difficulties · New evidence on international comparisons of academic achievement in industrialized nations, with special attention to societal, school, and family factors that support high achievement in top-performing nations
Maintaining a highly accessible writing style—one that is lucid and engaging without being simplistic—continues to be one of my major goals. I frequently converse with students, encouraging them to relate what they read to their own lives. In doing so, I hope to make the study of child development involving and pleasurable.
Chapter Introductions and End-of-Chapter Summaries. To provide a helpful preview, I include an outline and overview of chapter content in each chapter introduction. Especially comprehensive end-of-chapter summaries, organized according to the major divisions of each chapter and highlighting important terms, remind students of key points in the text discussion. Review questions are included in the summaries to encourage active study.
Ask Yourself Questions. Active engagement with the subject matter is also supported by study questions at the end of each major section. Four types of questions prompt students to think about child development in diverse ways: Review questions help students recall and comprehend information they have just read. Apply questions encourage the application of knowledge to controversial issues and problems faced by children, parents, and professionals who work with them. Connect questions help students build an image of the whole child by integrating what they have learned across age periods and domains of development. Reflect questions help make the study of child development personally meaningful by asking students to reflect on their own development. An icon indicates that each question is answered on the text’s companion website (http://www.ablongman.com/berk). Students may compare their reasoning to a model response.
Four types of thematic boxes accentuate the philosophical themes of this book:
Additional Tables. Attractively designed tables are liberally included to help readers grasp essential points in the text narrative and extend information on a topic.
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