Self-Checks

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I. WHAT IS LEARNING?

SELF-CHECK ITEM: Write a definition of learning and a definition of development. How do the two terms differ?

POSSIBLE ANSWER: Learning is change in an individual resulting from experience. Development is change that results from a combination of maturation and learning. Learning differs from development in that the former necessitates experience, whereas much development occurs without experience, such as the maturation of sex drive.

II. WHAT BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES HAVE EVOLVED?

SELF-CHECK ITEM: Develop a chart to compare the contributions of Pavlov, Thorndike, and Skinner to our understanding of learning. Label the chart headings Name of Theorist, Name of Theory, Main Concepts, and Research Conducted. Give examples of how the research findings can be applied to classroom learning.

QUESTION 1: Develop a chart to compare the contributions of Pavlov, Thorndike, and Skinner to our understanding of learning

POSSIBLE ANSWER:

Name of Theorist	Name of Theory	Main Concepts	Research Conducted
Ivan Pavlov	Classical conditioning	Pairing of neutral stimuli with unconditioned stimuli results in learning a conditioned response to the once-neutral conditioned stimulus	Experimental research with dogs, in which dogs were trained to salivate reflexively to the sound of a bell after the bell’s pairing with food (unconditioned stimulus)
E.L. Thorndike	Law of Effect	Behaviors resulting in favorable consequences are likely to be repeated, whereas those behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated	Thorndike experimented with cats, placing them in puzzle boxes from which the cats learned to escape, at first accidentally, then later by repetition of a favorable consequence (freedom).
B.F. Skinner	Operant conditioning	Similar to Thordike’s theory, behavior that is reinforced is more likely to be repeated frequently, whereas behavior that is not rewarded (or is punished) is less likely to be repeated frequently	Skinner created experimental "Skinner boxes" he used to train animals to manipulate bars to dispense food (usually pellets). As such, he was able to demonstrate the relation between behavior (operant) and its consequences

QUESTION 2: Give examples of how the research findings can be applied to classroom learning.

POSSIBLE ANSWER: The principles of learning can be used to teach children desirable behaviors, like non-disruptive classroom conduct. For instance, rewarding positive peer interactions (e.g., giving positive feedback to peers) is likely to increase the frequency of such behavior; whereas ignoring disruptive behavior is likely to decrease its occurrence. Similarly, pairing noxious stimuli with undesirable behaviors can create learned distaste for the target behaviors. For instance, employing the principles of classical conditioning, one can show films that make drunk driving distasteful (e.g., accidents resulting from drinking and driving).

III. WHAT ARE SOME PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIORAL LEARNING?

SELF-CHECK ITEM: Explain how each of the following principles of behavioral learning help motivate students to learn or behave in a particular way: reinforcers, the Premack Principle, punishers, shaping, extinction, schedules of reinforcement, maintenance, discrimination, and generalization.

POSSIBLE ANSWER:

Reinforcers: Reinforcement (praise or removal of an undesirable stimulus) increases the likelihood a behavior will be repeated, whether the behavior is positive (e.g., sharing) or negative (e.g., disrupting class)
Premack Principle: Pairing undesirable behaviors with desirable acts is employed frequently to induce students to engage in the former. An example is telling students they can go outside to play kickball, a desired outcome, after cleaning the art station, an undesirable task.
Punishers: Punishment decreases the likelihood a behavior is repeated, provided it is not reinforcing in some way, such as giving a violator status with peers (e.g., Johnny the Rebel). If punishment is fair (i.e., fits the transgression) and is justified by explanation, it can eliminate many undesirable behaviors (e.g., skipping class).
Shaping: Shaping is employed to teach target behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations of the behavior in question. Instructors can skillfully reinforce student responses that approximate a desirable outcome, like creative writing, by reinforcing selectively those attempts at self-expression that emerge during writing assignments.
Extinction: Extinction occurs when a learned behavior no longer elicits an expected reinforcement or is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus (classical conditioning). Extinction is particularly useful in defeating undesirable classroom conduct or social relationships (e.g., sexual harassment), if the reinforcement for learned behaviors is removed.
Schedule of reinforcement: In the initial stages of learning, desired behaviors are reinforced on a continuous schedule of reinforcement. Later, to maintain learned behaviors, reinforcement is best on a partial schedule. One such example is a pop quiz, which occurs on a variable interval schedule and maintains student preparation better than scheduled quizzes (fixed interval schedule).
Maintenance: Behavioral maintenance occurs when behaviors are reinforced on a partial schedule of reinforcement. Failure to reinforce desired behaviors leads to extinction. Partial reinforcement of undesirable behavior is counterproductive, resulting in their maintenance. Therefore, teachers must take care not to unwittingly reinforce undesirable behaviors through their own inconsistent behaviors.
Discrimination: Discrimination occurs when students learn that only specific behaviors lead to reinforcing or punishing consequences, not similar behaviors. For instance, speaking out in class is desirable, but only when called upon. Learning to speak out while allowing others an opportunity to speak is an example of stimulus discrimination.
Generalization: Stimulus generalization occurs when students generalize behaviors beyond that which is reinforced or punished. For instance, socially anxious individuals generalize a classically conditioned fear to all social interactions, rather than the interaction responsible for conditioning the fear. Teachers must help students learn to discriminate between like behaviors by their consequences.

IV. HOW HAS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY CONTRIBUTED TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN LEARNING?

SELF-CHECK ITEM: Explain how Bandura’s theory of observational learning and Meichenbaum’s model of self-regulated learning are alike and different.

POSSIBLE ANSWER: The two theories are alike in that both refer to the importance of cognition in learning. For instance, Bandura proposed that learning occurs without direct consequences to one’s actions. He proposed that learners observe modeled behavior and the consequences of the behavior, and then project the consequences on themselves. This projection through forethought provides incentive to either enact or avoid a behavior. Similarly, Meichenbaum’s model of self-regulated learning stresses the necessity of practicing modeled behavior by forecasting the rewarding consequences of positive behaviors and the negative consequences of undesirable behaviors. The two theories differ in that while Bandura discussed self-regulation and self-reward, Meichenbaum proposed employing self-talk to guide oneself through task performance and then self-reinforcement after task completion. Further, Meichenbaum’s model seems more easily applied than Bandura’s, which is more theoretical.

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