The term direct instruction is used to describe lessons in which the teacher transmits information directly to students, structuring class time to reach a clearly defined set of objectives as efficiently as possible. Its steps include: stating learning objectives, orienting students, reviewing prerequisites, presenting new material, conducting learning probes, providing independent practice, assessing performance with feedback, providing practice and review.

Other considerations in direct instruction are:

LESSON STRUCTURE Lessons should be logically organized which means that sometimes the organization may not be by topic, but by a causal structure (A causes B).

LESSON EMPHASIS Effective teachers give clear indications about the most important elements of the lesson by stating the point is important and by repetition and review of that point.

LESSON CLARITY It is best if the instructors use direct, simple, and well-organized language to present concepts.

EXPLANATIONS An effective way to explain something is by using the pattern, rule-example-rule, when presenting new concepts.

WORKED EXAMPLES A teacher might pose a problem and then work it out on a chalkboard or overhead, explaining his or her thinking at each step.

DEMONSTRATIONS, MODELS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS Cognitive theorists emphasize the importance of students' seeing and, when appropriate, having hands-on experience with concepts and skills.

MAINTAINING ATTENTION Teachers should introduce variety, activity, or humor to enliven the lecture and maintain student attention.

CONTENT COVERAGE AND PACING In general, students of teachers who cover more material learn more than other students do.

QUESTIONING The term learning probe refers to a variety of ways of asking for brief student responses to lesson content. Learning probes give the teacher feedback on students' levels of understanding and allow students to try out their understanding of a new idea to find out whether they have it right.

Another issue related to questioning that has received much research attention is wait time, the length of time the teacher waits for a student to answer a question before giving the answer or going on to another student. Research has found that teachers tend to give up too rapidly on students whom they perceive to be low achievers, a practice that tells those students that the teacher expects little from them.

S EATWORK Classic research on seatwork, or in-class independent practice, suggests that it is typically both overused and misused.

EFFECTIVE USE OF INDEPENDENT PRACTICE TIME A set of recommendations for effective use of independent practice time, derived from the work of Anderson (1985), Evertson and colleagues (2000), and Good and colleagues (1983), follows

1. Do not assign independent practice until you are sure students can do it..
2. Keep independent practice assignments short..
3. Give clear instructions.
4. Get students started, and then avoid interruptions
5. Monitor independent work..
6. Collect independent work and include it in student grades

Most of the principles of direct instruction discussed in this chapter have been derived from process-product studies, in which observers recorded the teaching practices of teachers whose students consistently achieved at a high level and compared them to those of teachers whose students made less progress. Although the research on direct instruction models has had mixed conclusions, most researchers agree that the main elements of these models are essential minimum skills that all teachers should have.

Transfer of learning from one situation to another depends on the degree to which the information or skills were learned in the original situation and on the degree of similarity between the situation in which the skill or concept was learned and the situation to which it is to be applied. The most important thing to know about transfer of learning is that it cannot be assumed.

Another important component of instruction is the use of discussion. Topics in the classrooms of today may range from being objective to subjective to controversial issues. Some topics are novel or difficult to grasp. However, teachers may effectively use the discussion format in large or small groups as discussions can clarify topics that may not contain single right answers, but do involve difficult concepts that force students to see something in a different way. Research finds that discussing controversial issues increases knowledge about the issues as well as it encourages and supports a deeper understanding of the various sides of an issue.