I. What is an effective learning environment?

SELF-CHECK ITEM: What elements contribute to an effective learning environment? Make a list of discipline problems that you might encounter as a teacher. How might these problems be prevented and handled?

QUESTION 1: What elements contribute to an effective learning environment?

POSSIBLE ANSWER: Elements contributing to an effective learning environment include using class time well, communicating a sense of purpose and high expectations, being enthusiastic, creating an atmosphere that is conducive to interest and inquiry, and permitting activities that engage students’ minds and imaginations.

QUESTION 2: Make a list of discipline problems that you might encounter as a teacher. How might these problems be prevented and handled?

POSSIBLE ANSWER: Some discipline problems teachers should be prepared to encounter are talking in class, physically aggressive encounters between students, sexual harassment, racist and sexist language, and use of abusive language, sometimes even aimed directly at teachers. These problems might be prevented if teachers create learning environments that stimulate interest and attention. When students are motivated intrinsically to learn, they pay attention to teachers and class projects instead of seeking less desirable activities to alleviate boredom. Furthermore, when discipline problems do occur, teachers should be prepared to punish transgressions swiftly but justly, explaining what behaviors are unacceptable and what behavioral alternatives are desirable. However, most effort should be directed toward rewarding positive behaviors.

SELF-CHECK ITEM: Review the vignette at the beginning of the chapter. Identify all the ways in which time was used in Ms. Cavalho’s class, including allocated time and engaged time. List ways in which allocated time and engaged time can be maximized. Give specific examples to show how a teacher might exhibit withitess and overlapping.

QUESTION 1: Identify all the ways in which time was used in Ms. Cavalho’s class, including allocated time and engaged time.

POSSIBLE ANSWER: Ms. Cavalho allocated time for the Hemingway imitation task, in which students were encouraged to imitate Ernest Hemmingway’s writing style. However, she also allocated time to prepare students for the task, insuring that students understood what was expected of them, by providing time to assess prerequisite knowledge. The time spent preparing for the task, such as when Ms. Cavalho had Mai present a short description of an old woman going up a flight of stairs, as well as the time students spent in group work becoming Ernest Hemingway, was engaged time.

QUESTION 2: List ways in which allocated time and engaged time can be maximized.

POSSIBLE ANSWER: Teachers can increase engaged time by providing lessons that are so interesting that students would rather focus on the lessons than non-academic activities. Teachers should provide rapidly paced instruction with varied modes of presentation and frequent opportunities for student participation. They should also de-emphasize seatwork. Teachers should also take heed not to disrupt student momentum. Thus, if students are engaged in group work, teachers should not disrupt students with discipline or announcements. Smoothness of instruction is another factor that cannot be ignored. Teachers should learn not to jump haphazardly between topics or issues during instruction time. Further, when time comes for regular transitions, such as between class time and lunchtime, teachers should manage transitions efficiently, without much disruption to allocated time. Teachers can do so by providing a signal to prepare students for transitions, like ringing a bell. Finally, teachers must learn to maintain group focus during lessons and seatwork. To do so, teachers can use strategies like accountability and group alerting to motivate students to work. Both strategies instil some fear that students will be called upon by teachers to present answers to the class. The potential for public embarrassment provides strong incentive for completing assigned work. Furthermore, to maintain attention during seatwork, teachers should circulate around the class, making their presence known to students.

QUESTION 3: Give specific examples to show how a teacher might exhibit withitness and overlapping.

POSSIBLE ANSWER: Withitness refers to teacher awareness of student behavior and teacher response to perpetrators immediately and appropriately. One example is catching students starting a conversation in class immediately rather than waiting until later, or targeting the last student speaking instead of the initiator. The term overlapping refers to a teacher’s ability to attend to interruptions or behavior problems without disrupting class. For instance, in the chapter-opening vignette, Ms. Cavalho dealt with student disruptions by walking next to the disruptive students instead of engaging them verbally and inadvertently reinforcing the disruptive students.

SELF-CHECK ITEM: For the grade level you plan to teach, construct a classroom layout and a "To Do" list for starting the academic year in a way that will minimize behavior problems.

POSSIBLE ANSWER: I am interested in teaching high school students. During the first days of class, we will focus on rule clarification, in hopes of minimizing future disruptions to allocated time. Since my students are cognitively advanced, we will begin by debating and then drafting classroom rules of conduct. Upon completion, I will make copies of the classroom rules and ask students to sign them and hand them in. A large copy of the rules will be hung on a wall as a reminder of our agreement. My hope is that by minimizing disruptions proactively, more time will be available for lessons and deskwork. I will also set a precedent early by beginning classwork on time every day and terminating classwork at the end of each period.

SELF-CHECK ITEM: List the sequence of strategies that are used for managing routine misbehavior according to the principles of least intervention. In each case, how does the strategy work? How would you identify examples of strategies in student-teacher dialogues? Reread the vignette at the beginning of this chapter. How did Ms. Cavalho manage her students’ misbehavior?

QUESTION 1: List the sequence of strategies that are used for managing routine misbehavior according to the principles of least intervention. In each case, how does the strategy work? How would you identify examples of strategies in student-teacher dialogues?

POSSIBLE ANSWER:

• Prevention: Prevention is best accomplished by maintaining student interest in lessons. Maintaining student interest requires that teachers vary methods of presentation, provide abundant examples, use appropriate humor and plenty of enthusiasm, provide meaningful and interesting assignments, and prepare students to work on their own. One example would be bringing in occasional speakers.
• Nonverbal cues: Nonverbal cues include facial gestures, eye contact, or a brief touch on a student’s shoulder. These gestures indicate that the teacher is aware of disruptive student behavior and will not tolerate it, while not disrupting lessons or inadvertently rewarding transgressions.
• Praise of correct behavior that is incompatible with misbehavior: Rewarding correct behavior takes full advantage of the power of operant conditioning. Rewards increase the likelihood that positive behaviors will be repeated. A teacher, for instance, may praise students for engaging diligently in a group activity. The key is telling students exactly what they are doing right so the students will maintain the behavior desired. Moreover, praising correct behavior is observed by other students, increasing the likelihood that others will also learn to behave correctly.
• Praise for other students: Like the previous bullet, teachers can use the opportunity of misbehavior to praise students behaving well. The hope here is that the perpetrator will learn vicariously and choose to behave correctly to receive like praise. For example, Steven is talking to a neighbor during class instead of listening to the lesson. Instead of chastising Steven, Mr. Topali praises Jelena, who is listening attentively to the lesson and taking notes: "I like the way you are focused on the lesson and taking notes, Jelena!"
• Verbal reminders: Verbal reminders remind students of what they should be doing, rather than focusing on the incorrect behavior students are engaged in. For instance, Mrs. Lestourgeon reminds Phil that his paper is late by stressing what Phil should have done instead of what he did wrong; "Phil, next time be sure to turn your paper in on time." This message reminds that he is capable of compliance.
• Repeated reminders: This procedure is similar to a broken record that repeats itself over and over again. For instance, Melanie continues to speak with Heather, despite being asked by Ms. Rose to curtail the conversation. In response, Ms. Rose repeats her message, "Melanie and Heather, please stop your conversation and get back to work on the project." She repeats the message again, until Melanie and Heather understand the importance of compliance.
• Consequences: When all else fails, teachers must provide just consequences for student transgressions. Failure to follow through indicates that teachers are not serious about rules and provides incentive for students to misbehave. After repeated reminders to Melanie and Heather to curtail their conversation, Ms. Rose finally tells them they will have to spend 15 minutes after class working alone on the project.

QUESTION 2: Reread the vignette at the beginning of this chapter. How did Ms. Cavalho manage her students’ misbehavior?

POSSIBLE ANSWER: Ms. Cavalho used non-verbal cues, walking near disruptive students or touching a student’s shoulder as a reminder of her presence and her awareness of student behaviors. She also went one step further with Mark, the student who failed to respond to repeated reminders of his tardiness. However, she did not interrupt class time to deal with Mark, neither did she accept his excuses or bargaining.

SELF-CHECK ITEM: Explain how applied behavior analysis is used in the classroom. Describe the appropriate and ethical use of praise, home-based reinforcement, punishment, daily report cards, and group contingencies.

QUESTION 1: Explain how applied behavior analysis is used in the classroom.

POSSIBLE ANSWER: Applied behavior analysis is a systematic application of behaviorism to the classroom. When individual students or entire classrooms engage in disruptive behaviors, the following steps should be followed:

• Identify target behaviors and reinforcers
• Establish a baseline for the target behavior
• Choose a reinforcer and criteria for reinforcement
• If necessary, choose a punisher and criteria for punishment
• Observe behavior during program implementation and compare it to baseline
• When the behavior management program is working, reduce the frequency of reinforcement

QUESTION 2: Describe the appropriate and ethical use of praise, home-based reinforcement, punishment, daily report cards, and group contingencies.

POSSIBLE ANSWER: These behavioral management strategies are useful when students are being disruptive to the presentation of lessons or during group or individual work. In such cases, failure to implement behavior modification strategies would be unfair to students desiring education. However, over-reliance on behavior modification strategies may be an attempt to over-control students rather than focusing wisely on learning, for not all laughing or student discourse can be viewed as misbehavior. Sometimes students engage eagerly and vociferously in discovery assignments and other projects. Therefore, special care must be taken to employ behavior analysis only when students are being disruptive and only to those students being disruptive. Further, they should be applied only when other less-obvious strategies have failed.

SELF-CHECK ITEM: Describe how you would prevent serious discipline problems. Develop and defend a plan for preventing serious discipline problems.

POSSIBLE ANSWER: To prevent discipline problems, I would focus on students with greatest potential for delinquency. However, I would attempt not to alienate them. This is difficult, as how can one discriminate students with potential for delinquency without alienation? The answer is as difficult as the question. First, I would encourage all students to respect each other and teachers. I would also encourage teachers to respect all students and communicate high expectations for all students, so that no student feels left unaccepted.

Unfortunately, this measure will not be enough to prevent delinquency. Therefore, I will urge students and teachers to act as the school’s eyes and ears and report any students they believe at risk for delinquency. This does not mean stereotyping students by race or socio-economic status, though. Instead, it implies learning to listen to student comments and identifying those students who feel alienated and need some help. I would then send those students to peer counselors, school counselors, or school psychologists for intervention.

Other preventative measures I would include in my plan are more interesting classrooms and lessons and ample opportunity for student involvement outside of class. In fact, I would require students to participate in at least one extra-curricular activity to improve socialization skills. Further, I would require all teachers to attend regular training on behavior management techniques for the classroom and hold regular meetings to discuss new interventions supported by the research literature. Finally, I would insure that discipline is provided for students violating school norms of behavior. In those cases, punishment would be applied swiftly but fairly enforced, with every attempt made to avoid lost class time. The bottom line is a school in which students are taught to respect and look out for each other.

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