Chapter Summary

CHAPTER 6: INEQUALITY BASED ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION

Inequality based on sexual orientation is often viewed as chronic, nonviolent discrimination. But it can also be violent and take the form of felony murder. Such was the case when Matthew Sheppard, a college student at the University of Wyoming, was brutally murdered because of his sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is a preference for emotional-sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex (homosexuality), the opposite sex (heterosexuality), or both (bisexuality). Three criteria for identifying oneself as homosexual or bisexual include (1) sexual attraction to people of one’s own gender (2) sexual involvement with one or more persons of one’s own gender and (3) self-identification as a gay man, lesbian, or bi-sexual.

The number of homosexuals and bisexuals in the United States is only based on estimates. They range from two percent to more than ten percent of all U.S. men and one to five percent of all U.S. women. Throughout history there has been opposition to homosexual behavior. This included personal bias as well as institutional bias by an entire society. Most societies have norms pertaining to sexuality based on the assumption that some forms of attraction and sexual relationships are normal and appropriate and others are abnormal and inappropriate. Behavior that violates sexual norms is considered as being deviant. This classification or labeling of behavior as inappropriate makes people of different sexual orientation targets of prejudice, discrimination, and even death. Homophobia, the excessive fear or intolerance of homosexuality, differs significantly from other forms of bigotry. Heterosexuals cannot identify with the daily lives of lesbians and gay men. The stereotypes held by heterosexuals about gay men and lesbians are a major impediment to achieving gay rights and reducing inequalities based on sexual orientation.

Most major religions in the world historically have regarded homosexuality as a sin. Although sodomy laws that criminalize oral and anal sex between persons of the same sex have been repealed in most states, almost half the states have laws pertaining to deviant sexual conduct, crimes against nature, and unnatural sexual intercourse. In 1986 the Supreme Court case Bowers v. Hardwick upheld state laws banning sodomy whether or not the conduct was between persons of the same sex.

Although they may join together as a couple in civil ceremonies, homosexuals are denied marital rights and the recognition of such rights in the United States. Some states and communities have given legal recognition to gays and lesbians establishing a domestic partnership, but these rights fall short of the same rights provided to married couples. In 1996 Congress passed the Defense of Marriage Act which denies federal recognition of same sex marriages and allows states to ignore these unions that are legalized elsewhere. Around the world, only four nations legalize gay marriages.

Although a clear standard on the status of gays being parents does not exist, gay fathers and lesbian mothers are often accused on being “unfit” parents purely on their sexual orientation. It is estimated 6 million to 14 million children have a gay or lesbian parent. Contrary to the stereotype of being unfit, research shows that children raised by lesbian or gay parents typically are well adjusted, and the parents often serve as role models for equal sharing in the family. Other discrimination directed against gays and lesbians includes housing opportunities, medical care, in the workplace, and military. Because physicians often do not ask patients about their sexual orientation, gay men are at greater risk for developing anal cancer, gastrointestinal and rectal diseases. In addition, AIDS is often called “the gay disease,” although the disease is spread and contracted by large number of heterosexuals who are intravenous drug users, prostitutes, and sexually promiscuous.

Although the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission acknowledges that same sex sexual harassment occurs in the workplace, supervisors frequently do not take it seriously. In 1953, President Eisenhower mandated that “sexual perverts” be fired from federal jobs. Today, gays and lesbians are employed in virtually all professions, including government service, religion, and law enforcement. In the military gays and lesbians are considered as being security risk because of the threat of blackmail. In view of this, they could be denied admittance to the armed services or discharged if their homosexual orientation was discovered. President Clinton’s “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy regarding sexual orientation and military personnel has been met with both praise and criticism. Many analysts simply see it as another form of institutional discrimination. In its most violent form, discrimination against gays and lesbians can be classified as a hate crime. Hate crimes appear to be most prevalent where homophobic attitudes and behaviors are tolerated or at least overlooked.

Sexual orientation and social inequality can be explained from various perspectives. Biologists emphasize the possible genetic origin of sexual orientation. Research shows support for the presence of a “gay gene” in studies of gay and lesbian fraternal and identical twins. There may also be a difference in the functioning of the hypothalamus in gay men. Psychologists associate homosexuality with mental processes and childhood experiences. Early psychological explanations considered homosexuality a form of maladjustment. In 1942 the American Psychiatric Association considered homosexuality a form of mental illness and suggested treatments ranging from castration to electroshock therapy. In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders. An integrated perspective combines both biological and psychological explanations.

The symbolic interactionist perspective views homosexual and heterosexual behavior as learned behavior. Functionalists focus on the relationship between social structure and sexual orientation. Conflict theorists focus on tensions in society and differences in interests and power of opposing groups. People with the greatest power are able to have their beliefs and values represented and enforced.

Inequalities based on sexual orientation may be reduced as society progresses, especially violence directed against gays and lesbians. Subtle forms of prejudice and discrimination, however, can be expected to continue in most social institutions.