The Three Appeals of Argument

When arguing, speakers and writers have never relied on logic alone to persuade an audience. Besides evidence (logos), speakers and writers must prove themselves credible (ethos) to the audience and may even attempt to affect the emotions (ethos) of the audience.

Logos (appeal to reason). Deductive reasoning contains three parts: a generalization, a specific case related to that generalization, and a conclusion—in other words, the claim, the support, and the assumption. Inductive reasoning begins with specific pieces of evidence and draws a conclusion from the evidence. The evidence used in inductive reasoning must be sufficient to support the conclusion. Both types of reasoning should include sufficient facts and other supporting details to back up those claims.

Ethos (appeal to ethics). Ethos refers to how well the writer presents himself/herself. The person making the argument must be credible in order for the reader to consider his/her assumptions and conclusions. An audience also considers whether the person making the argument seems knowledgeable and reasonable. For instance, are counterarguments presented? Are opponents and their arguments treated with fairness and respect?

Pathos (appeal to emotion). Pathos refers to the writer's ability to evoke the emotions of his/her readers. For example, a writer will present a story to illustrate an issue such as a vivid description of the reactions of the fetus during an abortion procedure. The writer may tap into one or a few emotions such as sadness, fear, anger, patriotism, love, etc., but must do so effectively to avoid being too manipulative.

Developing and Organizing the Support for Your Arguments

• Summarize, paraphrase, and quote supporting evidence.
• Provide various types of evidence and motivational appeals.
• Use climactic order.
• Use logical or conventional order:
  • Problem/solution
  • Two sides of a controversy
  • Comparison-contrast
  • Discipline-specific organizational strategies
• Present and respond to counterarguments (arguments against your claim).
• Use concession for ethical appeal.
• Avoid common fallacies in developing and using support.

The Comparison-Contrast Synthesis

• Comparison examines similarities.
• Contrast examines differences.

Use criteria to guide a comparison-contrast synthesis. The sources you use will have based their judgments on certain criteria that they make about their topic. Review your sources to identify their criteria for making those judgments and choose significant criteria to analyze in your comparison to highlight subtle and significant differences between your sources. Organize your analysis by source or by criteria.

Organization by Source (best for comparing short passages)

• Introduce the essay; lead to the thesis.
• Summarize source A by discussing its significant features.
• Summarize source B by discussing its significant features.
• Write a paragraph (or two) in which you discuss the significant points of comparison and contrast between sources A and B.
• Conclude the essay.

Organization by Criteria (best when passages are long and complex)

• Introduce the essay; lead to thesis.
• Criterion I
  • Discuss what author A says about this point.
  • Discuss what author B says about this point, comparing and contrasting B's treatment with A's.
• Put a bullet point in front this item
• Criterion II (Continue this procedure throughout the essay until you have completed your comparison.)
  • Discuss what author A says about this point.
  • Discuss what author B says about this point, comparing and contrasting B's treatment with A's.
• Put a bullet point in front this item
• Conclude the essay.

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