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Chapter 5: Argument Synthesis |
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The Elements of Argument The argument synthesis discusses a claim about which reasonable people could disagree. Its purpose is to persuade a reader to agree with the claim.
Whereas the explanatory synthesis presents a more objective thesis, the argument synthesis takes a stronger position and uses sources to support and advance that position. Each of the topic chapters provides readings that work well as sources for an argument synthesis. In addition, the Synthesis Activities at the end of each topic chapter provide guidance in choosing readings that will lead to deeper insights. Choose readings that present the opportunity for a dialogue between the sources and where there is enough similarity for comparison, but enough difference to provide tension when they are brought together in your paper.
The Three Appeals of Argument
When arguing, speakers and writers have never relied on logic alone to persuade an audience. Besides evidence (logos), speakers and writers must prove themselves credible (ethos) to the audience and may even attempt to affect the emotions (ethos) of the audience.
Logos (appeal to reason). Deductive reasoning contains three parts: a generalization, a specific case related to that generalization, and a conclusion—in other words, the claim, the support, and the assumption. Inductive reasoning begins with specific pieces of evidence and draws a conclusion from the evidence. The evidence used in inductive reasoning must be sufficient to support the conclusion. Both types of reasoning should include sufficient facts and other supporting details to back up those claims.
Ethos (appeal to ethics). Ethos refers to how well the writer presents himself/herself. The person making the argument must be credible in order for the reader to consider his/her assumptions and conclusions. An audience also considers whether the person making the argument seems knowledgeable and reasonable. For instance, are counterarguments presented? Are opponents and their arguments treated with fairness and respect?
Pathos (appeal to emotion). Pathos refers to the writer's ability to evoke the emotions of his/her readers. For example, a writer will present a story to illustrate an issue such as a vivid description of the reactions of the fetus during an abortion procedure. The writer may tap into one or a few emotions such as sadness, fear, anger, patriotism, love, etc., but must do so effectively to avoid being too manipulative.
Developing and Organizing the Support for Your Arguments Using the three appeals of argument as your guide, categorize your support as being either evidence or motivational appeals. Evidence constitutes logos; motivational appeals constitute ethos and pathos.
The Comparison-Contrast Synthesis
Use criteria to guide a comparison-contrast synthesis. The sources you use will have based their judgments on certain criteria that they make about their topic. Review your sources to identify their criteria for making those judgments and choose significant criteria to analyze in your comparison to highlight subtle and significant differences between your sources. Organize your analysis by source or by criteria.
Organization by Source (best for comparing short passages)
Organization by Criteria (best when passages are long and complex)
Note: Internet sources are generally transitory, so if a link given for an activity is no longer available, notify the administrator of this site. The link will be fixed or replaced with a suitable source for the activity.
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