Introduction

Not so long ago the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa were commonly identified as "savages" in the popular imagination of the "civilized" Western world. They were thought to be most comfortable in jungles where they made their living by hunting and gathering. They were sometimes described as "noble," their simplicity reproaching the excessive complexity and artificiality of the lives of modern Europeans and Americans. "Savages" could also appear threatening or intimidating. Lacking the social and moral restraints that civilizations supposedly impose on the use of violence, these primitive peoples might inexplicably perpetrate the most horrendous atrocities on missionaries, explorers, and colonists.

This concept of the "savage" is belied by the history of sub-Saharan Africa. Life among the Bantu-speaking people was in harmony with nature's rhythms, and Africa's early empires generally developed along a course that mirrored the cultural values of their founding peoples. African societies were shaped by centuries of cultural experience in adapting to and surviving in an often difficult natural environment; and, over time, many of these societies were influenced by outside cultural forces-with both positive and negative results. The malign connotation of "savage" can be supported by a superficial examination of the historical record of the African peoples, because sub-Saharan Africa has witnessed many terrible and bloody conflicts among its many tribes. However, this record of violence scarcely exceeds that of Europe, even during the most recent century.

The most important contribution that history can make toward correcting false impressions of African societies is to explore the true nature of the civilizations of these peoples. Their societies were complex organizations that achieved high levels of skill in agriculture, architecture, crafts, engineering, and government. They also developed effective systems of social morality, prizing communal qualities rather than competition.