Introduction

One of the recurring themes in history is the cyclical nature of nations and empires. Civilizations are born, reach their zenith under extraordinary leaders, and over time lose their vitality and strength. The remarkable feature in this cycle is that new civilizations emerge out of the decadence of the old, regenerated by new leaders and by outside cultural influences, often resulting in cultural synthesis. Such were the circumstances under which the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires emerged between 1300 and 1650. Coming on the heels of the Mongol and Timurid conquests in Southwest Asia and Anatolia, new Muslim Turcic dynasties began the process of consolidating and extending their realms with military might enhanced by the use of gunpowder weaponry.

Conquering an empire is not synonymous with establishing imperial authority, and the rulers of the new empires faced a monumental task in establishing an effective governing structure for their domains. Built upon the foundations of pre-existing cultural institutions and ethnically diverse populations, the most outstanding emperors realized that the vitality of their empires required a considerable degree of toleration for their non-Muslim subjects-an ideal that stood in sharp contrast to the policies adopted by their contemporary counterparts in Christian Europe.

In the sixteenth century, the Asian empires were clearly ascendant, controlling the East-West trade routes and drawing on the ample resources and manpower existing within their realms. Emperors also encouraged artistic endeavors which endure both as an expression of cultural synthesis and as evidence of imperial greatness. But in the latter-half of the seventeenth century, the Islamic "gunpowder empires" began to decline. A primary factor in their decline was Christian Europe's economic and technological advances during the seventeenth century. Other significant factors include the degeneration in the character of ruling dynasties, the increasing inefficiency and ineffectiveness of governing institutions over time, and deviation from policies that drew on the strengths of multiculturalism and ethnic diversity as pillars of the imperial system.