Introduction

This chapter focuses on the spread of European influence into Africa and the Middle East from the time of Napoleon to the outbreak of the First World War. It also discusses the responses to foreign intrusion in those areas. A principal theme is that the relatively modern states of Europe easily dominated the tribal societies of Africa south of the Sahara as well as the traditional Islamic societies of the Middle East and North Africa. The technological and military superiority of the Europeans proved to be the crucial factors in their expansion. Major setbacks were unusual. The defeat of the Italian army by Ethiopians in 1896 stands as one of the few exceptions in a long string of European victories. (Even that defeat was avenged during the 1930s, when Mussolini conquered Ethiopia in a belated revival of blatant imperialism).

The successes of the Europeans generated pressure for reform in Africa and the Middle East, but it was difficult to overcome resistance to modernization. The overthrow of Selim III, the Ottoman sultan, in 1807 exemplified the risks. Of course, the forces of modernization continued in the Ottoman Empire, as was manifested by the successful rebellion by the Young Turks in 1908. It is noteworthy that young military officers played a leading role in that rebellion. Their interest in the sources of military power helped them realize that modernization was required in order to survive in the competitive international system. Yet, resistance to modernization has also proven to be a persistent pattern. During the past two decades the strength of Islamic fundamentalism has illustrated this in some spectacular ways, such as the revolution that overthrew the shah of Iran (formerly Persia) during 1979 and established an Islamic republic.

The effects of European influence on the tribal societies of sub-Saharan Africa have perhaps been more disruptive, although much traditional tribal identity survived. The turbulence was compounded by massive exploitation even after Europeans stopped participating in the slave trade. The atrocities of forced labor in King Leopold's African Free State (later the Belgian Congo) are the most notorious examples. Scholars argue about the extent to which black Africans benefited from European imperialism. It is difficult to weigh the disruption of kinship and tribal ties against improvements in living standards or life expectancy. Conclusions are closely related to the values of the observer. One pattern, however, is clear: African states today still seek the wealth and power that modernization makes possible.