Early Modern
Timeline
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1509 – 1547
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Politics
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Henry VIII's Reign
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Henry's reign is perhaps best remembered today for its
controversies. Henry's intense desire for a male heir led to
conflicts over his marriages, and religious tensions were high as
reformers challenged policies and practices established by the
Church of Rome.
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1509
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Literature
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Erasmus' In Praise of Folly
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Desiderius Erasmus was an influential Dutch scholar associated
with humanism, a school of thought characterized in part by a
fondness for Greek and Roman classics and faith in the beneficial
effects of rigorous education on human character. In Praise of
Folly is a satire in which the character Folly ironically
praises issues Erasmus saw as problems of his time, such as church
abuses and ignorance.
On the Web:
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1516
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Literature
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More's Utopia
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A prominent intellectual and spiritual
figure in late 15th- and early 16th century England, Sir Thomas
More was a humanist whose Catholicism eventually came into conflict
with King Henry VIII's desire to divorce—he was executed in
1535 after refusing to take an oath recognizing Henry as supreme
head of the English church. Utopia satirizes European society and describes an
ideal state, but the ambiguities of how this state actually
functions in More's work are still a source of critical
controversy.
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
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1517
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Culture
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Luther's 95 Theses
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Martin Luther's 95 Theses, which he nailed to the door of
the Castle Church in Wittenburg, criticized indulgences, the church
practice of effectively excusing church members from worldly
penalties for sin (often in exchange for money). Many view Luther's
act and the controversy that ensued as a key event in the early
years of the Reformation.
On the Web:
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1528
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Culture
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Tyndale's Obedience of a Christian Man
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One of William Tyndale's lasting contributions to religious
thought was his translation of an English version of the New
Testament. This translation became the basis for the King James
version of the Bible, which still attracts an exceptionally wide
readership. Tyndale's work, The Obedience of a Christian
Man, is notable both for its religious elements and for its
usefulness as a window into the turmoil of the age: Tyndale
advocates obedience to the king, but he would later attack Henry
VIII's plans to divorce.
In the Anthology:
- William Tyndale, from The Obedience of a Christian
Man
- The King James Bible, Genesis 2-3
On the Web:
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1532
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Literature
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Machiavelli's The Prince
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For Niccolo Machiavelli, the prince was one who exercised power
with both reason and vitality: something Machiavelli called
"virtœ." Part of what made The Prince unique in its
time—and has kept Machiavelli's theories of government a
robust topic —was the notion that a ruler must sometimes set
aside morals and religion in order to preserve the state.
On the Web:
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1536
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Culture
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Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion
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John Calvin was a key figure in the development of the
Reformation; he was particularly influential in Geneva. His
Institutes began from some of the same premises set forth by
Martin Luther, but added important elements, such as the doctrine
of predestination. One of the features that would eventually split
Calvinists from Lutherans was the Calvinist emphasis on spiritual
worship and opposition to material forms of worship, such as
idolatry.
On the Web:
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1538
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Politics
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Henry VIII Excommunicated
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Henry, hoping to produce a male heir to the throne,
unsuccessfully sought the pope's approval to divorce Catherine of
Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn. He responded to the rejection of his
request by gaining annulment of his marriage to Catherine from
Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, and his resulting
excommunication would soon lead to England's break from the Church
of Rome.
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1538
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Literature
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John Bale's King John
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Bale's King John is a morality play, a religious drama in
which the characters are personified human characteristics such as
vice and virtue. King John, distinctly anti-Catholic in
sentiment, is particularly significant for its allegorized portrait
of political and religious leaders, which helped lay the ground for
the literary technique later used in history plays by writers like
Shakespeare.
On the Web:
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1547 – 1553
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Politics
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Edward VI's Reign
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Edward VI was young—only nine years-old—when he became
king, and his ill health fated him to die a young king, the victim
of tuberculosis. Edward was staunchly Protestant and sought to
secure a Protestant successor to his throne by blocking the
succession of his Catholic half-sister, Mary Tudor. He then named
his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, the next monarch. Her reign lasted only
nine days; Mary's supporters ousted the new queen, who was
imprisoned and later executed.
On the Web:
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1549
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Culture
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1st Act of Uniformity
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This Act of Uniformity, the first of several that would follow
in the upcoming years, made the Book of Common Prayer the only
acceptable liturgy in English churches.
On the Web:
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1553 – 1558
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Politics
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Mary I's Reign
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Mary I, the first female head of state in England, did what she
could to close the rift between England and Rome that had split
open during her father's reign. As part of her efforts, she revived
laws that made religious dissent cause for execution, and the
stories of the martyrs who were burned at the stake during the
queen's reign—later circulated widely in John Foxe's The
Book of Martyrs—became a strong source of religious
inspiration for Protestants. Mary's unpopular marriage to Philip of
Spain resulted in no children, so Elizabeth inherited the throne
after her half-sister's death.
In the Anthology:
- Foxe, from The Book of Martyrs
On the Web:
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1553
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Culture
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42 Articles Issued
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These articles defined the bread and wine of the Eucharist as
symbols of the body and blood of Christ and argued for
justification solely by faith, not by works. Revised and expanded,
they would eventually form the basis for the Thirty-Nine Articles,
which would be approved during the reign of Elizabeth I. The
doctrines defined in the articles marked an important step in the
development of the Church of England.
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1554
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Politics
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Wyatt's Rebellion
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Opposed to Mary I's plans to marry Philip of Spain, Sir Thomas
Wyatt attempted to gather forces to oust Mary and place Elizabeth
on the throne. His rebellion was unsuccessful, and he and many of
his co-conspirators were executed in 1554. The rebellion catalyzed
the execution of Lady Jane Grey and generated suspicion over how
(or whether) Elizabeth had supported Wyatt's efforts.
On the Web:
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1558 – 1603
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Politics
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Elizabeth I's Reign
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Elizabeth I's long reign is remembered as a time when religious
controversies in England diminished, when the arts and literature
flourished, and when voyages of discovery began an era of
empire-building. A well-loved monarch, the "virgin queen" never
married. Sir Walter Raleigh's poetry celebrates and laments her
magnetic authority.
In the Anthology:
- Elizabeth I
- Sir Walter Raleigh
On the Web:
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1563
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Culture
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Foxe's The Book of Martyrs
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John Foxe's Acts and Monuments, commonly known as
The Book of Martyrs, graphically chronicles the
executions of Protestant martyrs during the reign of Mary I. It was
first published in Latin in 1559; John Day published an English
version in 1563. The Book of Martyrs became
astoundingly popular: it was reprinted many times, and the only
book that had wider circulation was the Bible.
In the Anthology:
- Foxe, from The Book of Martyrs
On the Web:
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1564 - 1593
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Literature
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Marlowe
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Shakespeare's chief commercial and artistic rival, Christopher
Marlowe wrote both poetry and drama, including the celebrated A
Passionate Shepherd to His Love and the masterful tragedy
Doctor Faustus. Involved in clandestine politics and accused
of atheism, blasphemy, and treason, Marlowe may have been as
subversive as some of his prideful characters. His tragic figures
are propelled by unquenchable desires that overrun religious
stricture, social decorum, and political wisdom. The language of
his dramas is also remarkable for bringing the rhythms of natural
speech to the theater.
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
- Christopher Marlowe Website
http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/marlowe.htm
- The Faustus Myth
http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/faust.html#1587
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1572
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Culture
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St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
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The massacre of thousands of French Protestants, known as
Huguenots, took place after a plan to assassinate Huguenot Admiral
Coligny failed. In response, Catholic leaders planned a general
massacre which began in Paris but spread to many different areas of
France over the weeks following the initial slaughter. Historians
estimate that the death total reached approximately 70,000 after
two months. The massacre helps illustrates how religious tensions
in Europe still ran high, and how Catholics had continued to battle
reform in what is often called the Counter-Reformation.
On the Web:
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1585 - 1595
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Literature
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Montaigne's Essays
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Michel de Montaigne was a French humanist whose writing helped
shape currents in European philosophical and political thought, as
well as the essay as a literary form.
On the Web:
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1588
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Politics
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Spanish Armada's Defeat
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The defeat of the Spanish Armada is one of the most significant
military victories in English history. Elizabeth's forces overcame
a powerful attempt by Spanish forces to invade the country, and the
victory secured Elizabeth's status as a leadership figure. Before
the conflict, she made a famous speech—"To the English Troops
at Tilbury, Facing the Spanish Armada"—that addressed her
readiness to lead the troops to victory: though Elizabeth was a
woman, she ruled and spoke "in the word of a prince."
In the Anthology:
- Elizabeth I, Speeches, "To the English Troops at Tilbury, Facing
the Spanish Armada"
On the Web:
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1589-96
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Literature
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Spenser's The Faerie Queene
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Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene, his most important
work, is a long and multi-layered poem that draws on epic models to
create an allegory of the reign of Queen Elizabeth specifically,
and of English political and religious events more generally. As
Spenser explained to Sir Walter Raleigh in an opening letter, the
story is unified by the presence of King Arthur, who appears at
intervals throughout the work. This helps emphasize the historical
and national dimensions of the poem, even as they are cast in terms
of more contemporary concerns, such as the Protestant mistrust of
the Church of Rome.
In the Anthology:
- Spenser, The Faerie Queene (excerpts)
- Sir Walter Raleigh
On the Web:
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1593
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Literature
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Sidney's Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia
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The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, a pastoral
romance, examines the complexities—and sometimes the
weaknesses—of human character when passion clouds reason or
stunts action. It also explicitly raises questions of right rule:
what does it mean to rule justly and with reason, and when is
reason best tempered by feeling? Sidney died before he could
complete the revisions he had planned on the first version of this
long, prose work. A second version, the New Arcadia, was
published in 1590. The third version, the Countess of Pembroke's
Arcadia, was published in 1593 with the help of Sidney's
sister, Mary Herbert; it combines revised and unrevised books from
the first two versions.
In the Anthology:
- Sidney, The Arcadia
- Herbert, Countess of Pembroke
On the Web:
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1594
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Culture
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Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity
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Richard Hooker's Of the Laws of
Ecclesiastical Polity is
significant both as an apology for the Elizabethan government and
as a seminal work on the fundamental tenets of Anglicanism. These
included reliance on the Bible and emphasis on the unity of church
and state.
In the Anthology:
- Hooker, from The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity
On the Web:
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1594
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Literature
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Shakespeare Begins Career
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In 1594, several years after moving to
London from Stratford-on-Avon, Shakespeare joined a leading theater
troop, Chamberlain's Men, inaugurating his career as actor and
playwright. The publication of Shakespeare's Sonnets during his lifetime helped secure his
literary reputation, though he was already well-known as a
playwright and actor. His plays would not be published until after
his death, when John Heminges and Henry Condell gathered them and
published the First Folio (1623).
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
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1598
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Politics
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James I's True Law of Free Monarchies
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James wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies in 1598 and
reissued it when he acceded to the English throne in 1603. In it,
James sets out a philosophy of royal absolutism justified by divine
right: the king is the representative of God on earth, and thus
warrants complete obedience and loyalty.
In the Anthology:
- James I, from The True Law of Free Monarchies
On the Web:
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1603 – 1625
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Politics
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James I's Reign
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James I was King of Scotland when he
inherited the throne from Elizabeth, and he ruled over both
kingdoms until his death. Foreign conflicts escalated and loomed
during James's reign, and the king often wrangled with Parliament
over financial shortages. On the domestic front, the arts and
literature continued to flourish.
On the Web:
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1605
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Culture
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Bacon's Advancement of Learning
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Sir Francis Bacon's The Advancement
of Learning critiques the
classical underpinnings of humanist education, arguing in favor of
a more scientific form of learning. For Bacon, careful observation
of nature had a pure, spiritual dimension; the modern idea that
science and religion are distinct had yet to take hold. Bacon's
ideas in The Advancement of Learning, in the scientific treatise
Instauratio Magna, and in
various other works helped shape the scientific revolution. His
writing itself was an important contribution to the development of
English prose.
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
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1606
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Literature
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Jonson's Volpone
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Ben Jonson is often regarded as second only to Shakespeare in
his skills as a dramatist, and Volpone is one of his most
accomplished plays. The eponymous protagonist and Mosca plot their
way through a drama that exhibits exquisite stylistic control on
the part of its author. At the same time, Jonson maintains a comic
pace that imbues the scenes with a feeling of spontaneity.
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
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1606
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Politics
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Gunpowder Plot Conspirators
Executed
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In 1605, a group of young Catholics devised a plot to blow up
the English government by igniting kegs of gunpowder during a
session of Parliament. The conspirators' confidence was betrayed by
Lord Monteagle, and Guy Fawkes was caught on the verge of lighting
the fuse. Several of the conspirators and Fawkes were executed. The
event helps shed light on the ways in which religious differences
had remained a source of conflict in England.
On the Web:
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1607
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Politics
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Jamestown Founded
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The first American colony, Jamestown was founded by a group of
Londoners who had formed the Virginia Company, and who would soon
find that the task of creating a colony in an untamed land was a
difficult one indeed. Late 16th century accounts of the initial
voyages to the American coast, such as Arthur Barlow's The First
Voyage Made to the Coasts of America and Thomas Hariot's A
Brief and True Report of the Newfound Land of Virginia, tell of
the years leading up to the founding of Jamestown. They vividly
describe early encounters with native populations and many of the
issues—such as the devastating effects of European diseases
upon Indians—that colonization raised.
In the Anthology:
- Barlow, The First Voyage
Made to the Coasts of America
- Hariot, A Brief and True Report
of the Newfound Land of Virginia
- Perspectives: England
in the New World
On the Web:
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1611
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Culture
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King James Bible Published
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The version of the Bible authorized by King James remains one of
the most widely-read English Bibles in circulation today.
In the Anthology:
- The King James Bible, Genesis 2-3
On the Web:
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1611
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Literature
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Aemilia Lanyer, Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum
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Lanyer's volume of poetry, a meditation on the Passion of
Christ, is remarkable for its radical insistence on the social and
religious equality of women; many modern readers would label
Lanyer's views on gender "feminist." Moreover, "The Description
of Cookham," has the distinction of being the first country
house poem published in English.
In the Anthology:
- Lanyer, Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum
On the Web:
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1618 – 1648
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Politics
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30 Years War
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Begun in 1618 when the Bohemians revolted against the Habsburgs,
the Thirty Years War pitted the Habsburgs and the Spanish against
the French, Swedish, and Dutch. Though England did not play a
primary role in the war, largely due to a shortage of funds,
England did become involved in wars with Spain in 1625 and with
France in 1627. The Thirty Years War ended with the Peace of
Westphalia in 1648.
On the Web:
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1620
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Culture
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Hic Mulier and Haec-Vir
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Hic Mulier (The Man-Woman) and Haec-Vir
(The Womanish Man) were pamphlets
published anonymously in 1620. They offer a fascinating window into
debates over gender and clothing in the 17th century. By making a
case for the wearing of sex-appropriate attire, the pamphlets
illustrate a connection between gender, clothing, and hierarchy.
Moreover, in taking up the case against cross-dressing,
Hic Mulier and
Haec Vir stake out a
position on a topic that was a popular theatrical theme, as well as
a subject that provoked consternation in conservative
circles.
In the Anthology:
- Perspectives: Tracts on Women and Gender, Hic Mulier and
Haec-Vir
On the Web:
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1621
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Literature
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Wroth's Urania
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Lady Mary Wroth's The
Countess of Montgomery's Urania is a pastoral romance that centers around the
story of the lovers Pamphilia and Amphilanthus. One of the primary
themes of the work is fidelity; Pamphilia insists that her lover
prove he is worthy by remaining faithful to her. The book caused
quite a stir after it was published: Edward Denny, Baron of
Waltham, accused Wroth of slander, and we can perhaps attribute the
fact that she continued to write but published little to the
controversy that ensued.
In the Anthology:
- Lady Mary Wroth, Pamphilia to Amphilanthus
from The Countess of Montgomery's Urania
On the Web:
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1625 – 1649
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Politics
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Charles I's Reign
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Charles I's reign had a rocky start that, unfortunately, set the
tone for the years to come. He became embroiled in wars with the
Spanish and with the French, who themselves were fighting on
opposite sides in the Thirty Years' War. The failure of expeditions
and financial straits brought him into repeated conflicts with
Parliament. In 1629, Charles decided that he would not again call
Parliament, and he ruled without it for 11 years. However, he found
it necessary to call Parliament again when his attempts to impose
the English Prayer Book on Scottish Presbyterians failed, resulting
in a rebellion. Additional disagreements with Parliament took place
in the wake of an Irish uprising in 1941, and soon, Charles found
himself in the midst of a civil war.
More civil wars would follow, and the English Army, which had
sided with Parliament against the king, eventually decided that
Charles must be executed. A "Rump Parliament" comprised of a small
percentage of the full Parliament tried him for treason, and he was
beheaded in 1649.
On the Web:
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1629
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Culture
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Rubens Visits England
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Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish painter
known for his stylistic prowess and innovation. The demand for his
work was enormous, and patrons included Charles I, who knighted
him. He was arguably the most influential painter of his time;
centuries later, artists such as Watteau, Delacroix, and Renoir
would draw inspiration from Rubens. Nearly every gallery of
consequence in Europe now exhibits some of his work
On the Web:
In Images:
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1631
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Literature
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John Donne Dies
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Donne's literary corpus consists of numerous love poems, racy
and sometimes explicitly erotic, from his youth; devotional verse
written during a long period of spiritual and emotional doubt; and
his Sermons, which had garnered him respect as a preacher
when he delivered them as part of his position as a man of the
church.
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
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1632
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Culture
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Prynne's Histrio-Mastix
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William Prynne's Histrio-Mastix was one of several tracts
published as a result of anti-theatrical sentiment among Puritans.
Interpreted as an attack on Charles I and Henrietta Maria,
Histrio-Mastix landed Prynne before the Star Chamber, where
he was severely penalized: one of his punishments was the cropping
of his ears.
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1641
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Politics
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Star Chamber Abolished
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Parliament's abolishment of the Star
Chamber was significant in part because the Star Chamber had acted
as a licensing authority and had enacted laws that prohibited
publications on certain topics. Once the laws no longer held,
pamphlets and other texts that commented on English events and
politics circulated much more widely.
On the Web:
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1642 – 1651
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Politics
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English Civil Wars
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The English Civil Wars involved several different armed
conflicts, first between the King and those loyal to him (the
Royalists) and Parliament. The Scots joined forces with Parliament
in 1643, and Charles found it necessary to turn himself over to the
Scottish army. After several years of attempts to negotiate peace,
the English Army purged Parliament of those who favored continuing
attempts at peace. This left the Rump Parliament, which had Charles
I executed for treason. Armed invasions of Ireland and Scotland
followed in 1649 and 1650.
In the Anthology:
- Perspectives: The Civil War, or the Wars of Three Kingdoms
On the Web:
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1642
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Culture
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Theaters Closed
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The Puritans, believing the stage to be immoral, closed the
theaters in England and prohibited acting. While some authors
continued to write plays, performances were clandestine, often
taking place in private homes. The theaters would not reopen until
1660.
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1649 – 1660
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Politics
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Interregnum
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The Interregnum describes the period from the abolition of the
monarchy until its restoration with Charles II. The first four
years of the Interregnum are known as the Commonwealth; during this
time, the Rump Parliament held power. The years from 1653 to 1659,
when Oliver and then Richard Cromwell were Lords Protector, are
known as the Protectorate.
On the Web:
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1651
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Culture
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Hobbes' Leviathan
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Thomas Hobbes believed that humankind
was not naturally peaceful or predisposed to civility. Government
served as a contract between a ruler and a people and effectively
saved them from themselves by staving off the chaos of the "State
of Nature." The members of a society must consent to being ruled by
a sovereign, and the sovereign is obligated to maintain order.
Without this order, "the life of man is solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish and short."
In the Anthology:
- Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Chapter 13
On the Web:
In Images:
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1660 – 1685
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Politics
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Charles II's Reign
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Charles II's restoration to the throne in 1660 did not mark the
end of conflicts between the monarchy and Parliament. Charles
attempted to institute a policy of religious toleration through the
Declaration of Indulgence, but his largely Anglican Parliament
forced him to accept the Test Act, which re-instituted penalties
against Catholics and dissenters. In the aftermath of the Popish
Plot, supposedly a Jesuit plan to murder the king, Parliament
attempted on three occasions to introduce Exclusion Bills that
would bar his brother James from the throne; Charles responded by
dissolving those assemblies. He pursued alliances with the French,
and though relations with the Dutch were hostile in the beginning
of Charles' reign, he opted for an alliance by marrying Mary, his
brother's daughter, to William of Orange.
On the Web:
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1660
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Culture
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Royal Society Founded
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The Royal Society was founded in 1660 to promote scientific
inquiry. Religion and politics were excluded from the Society's
charter, which it received in 1662.
In the Anthology:
- Perspectives: The Royal
Society and the New Science
On the Web:
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1667
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Literature
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Milton's Paradise Lost
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John Milton's epic poem retells the story of Adam and Eve's
expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Notable not only for its
literary elements—the vividness of its characters and
language, the crafting of its lines—but also as a showcase for
Milton's religious, historical, and scientific knowledge,
Paradise Lost is one of the great masterpieces of English
literature.
In the Anthology:
- John Milton, Paradise Lost (excerpts)
On the Web:
In Images:
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1678 (part I)
1684 (part II)
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Literature
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Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress
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John Bunyan's tale of the voyage of a hero named Christian to
the Celestial City became immensely popular almost immediately
after it was published. Christian carries a scroll in his hand and
a burden on his back in an allegorized spiritual voyage that
culminates in his conversion. He encounters numerous obstacles on
his journey, including the Slough of Despond, the Valley of
Humiliation, and Vanity Fair, as well as foes such as Apollyon and
Giant Despair.
In the Anthology:
- John Bunyan, from The Pilgrim's Progress
On the Web:
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