Twentieth Century Timeline
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1901
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Culture
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Queen Victoria Dies
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Under Victoria's rule, England enjoyed a long period of calm and
enrichment. By the 1890s, however, aesthetes and decadents had
begun to reject Victorian mores and thus set the stage for the
Modernists. Modernist artists, typically anti-establishment,
ushered in an innovative period characterized by experimentation
with form and content, increased attention to psychology and
sexuality, and exploration of what many considered to be the
condition of the modern world, alienation and disenchantment.
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1902
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Literature
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Conrad's Heart of Darkness Published in Book Form
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Considered an early example of modernist writing, Joseph
Conrad's Heart of Darkness provides the reader with a view
of Belgian atrocities in the Congo. Conrad's interest in hidden
drives and ambiguous narrative framing further establishes this
novel as a hallmark of early modernist fiction.
In the Anthology
- Conrad, Heart of Darkness
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1903
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Politics
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Women's Social and Political Union founded
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Despite growing support for Liberal causes in England at this
time, the movement for women's suffrage was largely ignored.
Emmeline Pankhurst, the daughter of Manchester radicals,
established the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903.
The union emphasized the importance of cross-class agitation and,
in 1905, called for militancy in the advancement of women's rights.
Through hunger strikes and non-cooperation, members of the WSPU
eventually gained the attention of the media and, in large part due
to their efforts, women over 30 were granted the right to vote in
1918. The increased visibility and strength of suffragists both
invigorated and unsettled English women; Virginia Woolf's A Room
of One's Own and Three Guineas reflected her belief in
equal rights for women and, at the same time, her disdain for
certain aspects of the early feminist movement.
In the Anthology
- Regendering Modernism
- Woolf, A Room of One's Own and Three Guineas
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1903
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Culture
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First Airplane Flies
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The Wright Brothers' first manned flight was emblematic of the
increasingly popular conviction that human kind could achieve new
and seemingly impossible goals. The airplane revolutionized travel,
war, and advertising.
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1905
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Culture
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Freud's Essays in the Theory of Sexuality
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In these seminal essays, Sigmund Freud, in his seminal Three
Essays in the Theory of Sexuality explored the question of
whether homosexuality, perversion, fetishism, and sadism were the
result of innate drives or experience. Freud's notions of free
association and sexuality are manifest in the work of several high
modernist writers, notably James Joyce and D.H. Lawrence.
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1905
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Culture
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Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity
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Albert Einstein's early work on special relativity and, in 1915,
general relativity, set the foreground for later advances in
physics. Notions of moral relativity and skepticism characteristic
of modernist literature derived in part from such scientific
revelations.
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1906-1914
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Politics
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Liberal Government Reforms
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In the years leading up to World War I, Liberals took steps to
address the grievances of the working classes and the poor. While
there is some debate as to whether or not the various acts passed
during this time were successful, they were nevertheless numerous.
Beginning in 1906, the government made education and medical visits
compulsory for children and, in 1911, established an act in favor
of health care for adults. Also on the Liberal agenda were the
institution of the eight-hour workday and the establishment of a
minimum wage in trades without any standard.
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1910-1936
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Politics
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George V's Reign
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In 1910, George V ascended the throne. An adept negotiator,
George managed to resolve conflicts between Liberals and Tories
regarding social reform with the passage of the Parliament Bill of
1911. George could not, however, stop the juggernaut of war and
dissolution that characterized the remainder of his rule. After the
outbreak of war in 1914, the British Empire began to
unravel—in time, Ireland, Canada, Australia, India, New
Zealand and South Africa demanded independence. The period between
1910-1914, then, is often idealized as a time of peace and
stability. Early volumes of Edward Marsh's anthology, Georgian
Poets, as well as E. M. Forster's 1910 novel, Howard's
End, reflect the pastoral tone considered representative of
Edwardian and Georgian literature.
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1914
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Literature
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Shaw's Pygmalion
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Bernard Shaw, an Irish-born playwright, was critical of both
English society and English plays. In his rejection of 19th century
dramatic conventions, Shaw played an important role in the
development of modern drama.
In the Anthology
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1914
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Literature
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Lewis's Vorticist Manifesto
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Vorticism, a term coined by Ezra Pound but conceived by Wyndham
Lewis, celebrated the dynamism of the machine and called for the
end of artistic complacency. Considered a minor movement within
Modernism, Vorticist literature resembled Imagist writing in its
verbal economy and its use of strong visual images. Released only
weeks before the onset of World War I, Lewis' publication,
Blast, exemplified modernist experimentation with typography
and radical content.
In the Anthology
- Blast
- Vorticist Manifesto
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1914-1918
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Literature
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World War I; War Poets
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Notions of alienation, futility and godlessness characteristic
of modernist literature stemmed in part from the atrocity of World
War I. The War Poets, in particular Wilfred Owen and Isaac
Rosenberg, captured the war's brutality. 1917 was a pivotal year
for Owen; while being treated for shell-shock at a private
hospital, he met influential poets Siegfried Sassoon and Robert
Graves and wrote two of his most important war poems, "Dulce et
Decorum Est" and "Anthem for Doomed Youth."
In the Anthology
- Owen, "Dulce et Decorum Est" and "Anthem for Doomed Youth"
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1916
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Politics
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Easter Uprising
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Seeking liberation from British rule, Irish Republicans occupied
the Dublin Post Office in an attempt to institute an independent
government. Padraic Pearse read his stirring Proclamation of the
Republic on April 24, Easter Monday. The British government
executed Pearse along with other leaders of the Uprising on May 3,
1916, an event memorialized in W. B. Yeats' "Easter 1916."
In the Anthology
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1916
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Literature
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Joyce's Portrait of the Artist
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James Joyce's autobiographical novel, A Portrait of the
Artist as a Young Man, depicts Ireland as a subjugated nation
from which the artist must flee in order to achieve autonomy.
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1917
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Literature
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Yeats' Wild Swans at Coole
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A member of the 19th century Celtic Revival, Yeats encouraged
Irish artists to resist the cultural influences of the English. A
versatile writer, Yeats is best known for his poetry, inspired by
Irish folklore and mythology. His interest in mysticism and the
occult is evident in this collection, which features "Sailing to
Byzantium" and "The Second Coming." While inspired by the
modernists, Yeats did not abandon meter and rhyme in his own
work.
In the Anthology
- Yeats, "Sailing to Byzantium" and "The Second Coming"
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1922
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Culture
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BBC Founded
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Founded by John Reith, the British Broadcasting Company (BBC)
began daily transmissions on November 14. Listening to the
"wireless" soon became a popular phenomenon of British society. The
BBC provided mass communication of entertainment and news
programs.
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1922
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Literature
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Eliot's Waste Land; Joyce's Ulysses
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Considered exemplary of High Modernism, T.S. Eliot's The
Waste Land and James Joyce's Ulysses break with
traditional literary techniques while at the same time asserting
the importance of mythology and history. The Waste Land, a
highly allusive epic poem, depicts modern Europe as a culture in
need of purgation and redemption. Ulysses, a novel that
abandons novelistic conventions, depicts a single day in Dublin
structured loosely around Homer's Odyssey. Both works
challenge the reader's sense of authority and mark a conscious
departure from traditional literary form and content.
In the Anthology
- Eliot, The Waste Land
- Joyce, from Ulysses
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1922
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Politics
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Irish Free State Established
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Efforts of Irish Republican Michael Collins led to the
establishment of the Irish Free State. This new configuration gave
dominion status to the 26 southern counties, leaving the remaining
six northern counties still under British rule. Opponents to the
partition of Ireland assassinated Collins shortly after the
victory.
In the Anthology
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1924
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Literature
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Forster's Passage to India
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Set in India, this most important of E.M. Forster's novels
exposes some of the difficulties of colonial rule. At the heart of
the novel is the question of whether or not personal relationships
can be sustained between men of different cultures. Written during
the early years of Gandhi's struggle, A Passage to India
illustrates the inevitability of Britain's loss of power
abroad.
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1925-1929
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Literature
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Woolf's Mrs Dalloway; To the Lighthouse; and A
Room of One's Own
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Virginia Woolf's adaptation of the stream of consciousness
technique employed by James Joyce led her to develop a unique
literary voice perhaps best exemplified in the two seminal novels,
Mrs Dalloway and To the Lighthouse. Woolf's
conception of tunneling, the process of digging behind and beneath
surfaces to reveal hidden and private depths, allowed her to create
complex female characters. Her interest in myth, symbol and
structure marks her work as exemplary of High Modernism.
Her versatility as a writer was made ever more clear in the late
1920s. Already a proven fiction writer, essayist and literary
critic, Woolf took increasingly political stands in her work. In
the essay A Room of One's Own, Woolf recommends formal education, economic
independence and physical space for women.
In the Anthology
- Woolf, Mrs Dalloway; A Room of One's Own
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1928
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Politics
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Representation of the People Act
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Women over the age of 21 were granted the right to vote.
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1928
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Literature
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Hall's Well of Loneliness; Lawrence's Lady Chatterly's
Lover
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Though male homosexuality was a popular subject in the 1890s due
to Oscar Wilde's trials, lesbianism was less frequently discussed.
In her 1928 novel, Radclyffe Hall sought to liberate the British
novel from social conventions by depicting lesbianism in realistic
terms. Though social mores loosened during the early 20th century,
sex remained a taboo. D. H. Lawrence's novel about a woman's sexual
satisfaction scandalized the public and was censored, as was
Hall's.
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1930
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Literature
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Auden's Poems
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W.H. Auden's formidable career as a poet began in earnest with
this early publication of short, rather cryptic works based on
personal experience. As his style developed, Auden became known for
his technical skill, wit, and provocative imagery.
In the Anthology
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1932
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Literature
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Huxley's Brave New World
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During the 1930s, the innovative spirit of the modernist era
began to wane. Aldous Huxley's satirical novel depicts the perils
of technological advancement, consumption and socio-political
stasis. Written before the totalitarian atrocities of World War II,
Brave New World conceives of a benign dystopia that
contrasts markedly with George Orwell's horrific 1984,
written in 1949.
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1932 - 1949
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Politics
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British Empire Declines
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The decline of the British empire begins in earnest with the
liberation of Iraq in 1932. Egypt gained independence in 1936,
India in 1947, Palestine in 1948 and Ireland in 1949.
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1933
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Politics
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Hitler Becomes Chancellor of Germany
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Hitler came to power by democratic means. Though he was in power
from 1933 to 1945, Hitler's private agenda was largely obscured in
these early years of his rule of Germany.
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1936 - 1939
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Politics
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Spanish Civil War
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The Spanish Civil War was an overt sign of the rise of fascism
in Europe. Auden's "Spain 1937" voiced clear opposition to the
spread of fascism.
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1939 - 1945
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Politics
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World War II
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On September 11, Hitler invaded Poland; Britain and France
subsequently declared war on Germany.
In the Anthology
- World War II and the End of Empire
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1939
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Literature
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Joyce's Finnegans Wake
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Finnegans Wake, Joyce's final tour-de-force, further
pushed the boundaries of literature. Many consider the publication
of this work to mark the end of the Modernist era; after the
Wake and the onset of World War II, critics recognize the
beginning of the post-Modern era.
In the Anthology
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1940
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Politics
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Churchill's Wartime Speeches
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Churchill, Britain's Prime Minister through the World War II
years, made these rallying speeches before the House of Commons in
an effort to shore up support for the war against Hitler. Two of
the most famous are "Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat" and "Wars are
Not Won by Evacuations." Britain declared war on Japan in the same
year after the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
In the Anthology
- Churchill, "Two
Speeches Before the House of Commons"
On the Web:
The Homepage of Winston Churchill
http://www.winstonchurchill.org/
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1944
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Politics
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D-Day
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In the early morning hours of June 26 Allied troops landed on
the coast of Normandy, securing the shoreline within 24 hours.
D-Day is considered the turning point of World War II.
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1945
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Literature
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Waugh's Brideshead Revisited
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Considered one of the finest British satirists, Waugh achieved fame with the publication of this
novel about Oxford in the late 1920s. Waugh's disenchantment with
the war, in which he served, led him to write this highly nostalgic
story.
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1946
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Culture
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Public Services Nationalized
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Following the end of World War II, Parliament put into place
several acts limiting the power of private parties in national
interests. The government assumed control of the Bank of England
and Britain's railway system.
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1946
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Literature
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Thomas' Deaths and Entrances
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Dylan Thomas, notorious for his alcoholic outbursts, wrote some
of the most rhapsodic poetry in British literary history. In this
collection, Thomas published "Fern Hill," a pastoral elegy based on
summers spent at his aunt's dairy farm. A later collection, In
Country Sleep, included his most famous poem, "Do Not Go Gentle
Into That Good Night," a villanelle of the carpe diem
spirit.
In the Anthology
- Thomas, "Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night"
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1949
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Literature
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Orwell's 1984
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Orwell's satirical novel is widely acknowledged as the major
work of his career. Disturbed by the brutality of government during
the war era, Orwell conceived of a dystopic society characterized
by totalitarian rule, personal loss of freedom, and violence. The
figure of "Big Brother" is continually referenced today, as are
Orwell's neologisms, "Doublethink" and "Newspeak."
In the Anthology
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1952
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Politics
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Queen Elizabeth II Crowned
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After the death of her father, George VI, Elizabeth II ascended
the throne and marked the beginning of a long tenure as monarch.
Her son, Charles, is next in line for the throne.
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1953
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Literature
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Beckett's Waiting for Godot
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Irish-born Samuel Beckett challenged literary conventions in his
stories, novels, and plays. Waiting for Godot, considered
one of his most influential works, intentionally does not fulfill
audience expectations. Characterized by spare sets, characters out
of context, little plot development and rare denouement, Beckett's
plays constitute the bulk of what has come to be known as the
Theater of the Absurd and typifies postmodern drama.
In the Anthology
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1961
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Literature
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Naipaul's House for Mr. Biswas
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In this grand novel set in the Caribbean, V. S. Naipaul
challenges the reader to conceptualize a reversed world order in
which the peripheral is in fact central. By questioning the moral
validity of empires and investigating the consequences of foreign
rule on native communities, A House for Mr. Biswas marks a
new trend in English literature, the postcolonial novel. Naipaul
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2001.
In the Anthology
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1962
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Culture
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Beatles Release Hit Single
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The Liverpool rock quartet, The Beatles, release "Love Me
Do/P.S. I Love You" on the Parlophone Records label. The global
popularity of The Beatles prompted interest in British culture.
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1967
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Politics
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Sexual Offenses Act
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The Sexual Offences Act marked a greater acceptance of
differences in sexuality and sexual behavior on the part of British
lawmakers and citizens. The Act, however, only partially
decriminalized homosexuality and left in place the law against
"Gross Indecency," by which Oscar Wilde was imprisoned.
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1967
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Literature
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Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead
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Journalist, drama critic, and writer Tom Stoppard was
established as a playwright with the performance of his play based
on Shakespeare's Hamlet. Subsequent plays, like
Travesties, are known for being both deeply philosophical
and lighthearted; Stoppard's work is characterized by jokes, puns,
and innuendo.
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1968
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Literature
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Booker Prize Established
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In response to the great number of popular novels published in
the UK, the Booker Prize was established to reward citizens of the
UK for their creative work.
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1972
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Politics
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Bloody Sunday
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On Sunday, January 30, British paratroopers killed 13 unarmed
civil rights marchers at an anti-internment rally in Derry,
Northern Ireland, sparking further conflicts between the British
and the Irish.
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1979
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Literature
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Caryl Churchill, Cloud Nine
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First performance of Churchill's gender-bending post-imperial
comedy, one of her most dazzling and pointed plays.
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1979 - 1990
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Politics
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Margaret Thatcher is Prime Minister
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Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government did much to
dismantle many of the social programs established by her more
liberal predecessors. Thatcher's stern assertiveness set a standard
for female leadership.
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1981
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Literature
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Rushdie's Midnight's Children
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Salman Rushdie's novel about Indian history and independence was
an immediate success for both its political content and its
innovative use of literary techniques such as magic realism. Like
V. S. Naipaul before him, Rushdie contributed to a growing body of
postcolonial literature based on the British Empire.
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1997
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Politics
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Blair Elected Prime Minister
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Power returned in 1997 to a revitalized Labour Party led by Tony
Blair, committed to increased autonomy for Ireland, Scotland and
Wales, international engagement, and a pragmatic liberalism in
economic affairs.
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1998
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Politics
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Good Friday Agreement
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The Belfast Agreement, or "Good Friday" Agreement, was signed on
April 10 at the conclusion of a series of multi-party talks. The
Agreement addressed a number of political, economic, and social
issues. Perhaps most significantly, the Agreement provided both
Unionists and Republicans with some degree of self-determination in
choosing to be British or Irish or both.
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