| |
Timelines
Restoration Timeline
|
Restoration Timeline
|
|
1658
|
Politics
|
Cromwell Dies
|
Oliver Cromwell, who was born on April 25, 1599 in Huntingdon, was "Lord
Protector"—i.e. the head of the government—from 1653 to
1658. Upon his death Cromwell was buried in Westminster Abbey, but
three years later his body was exhumed, taken to Tyburn—the
place in London for execution by hanging—and hanged on
the gallows.
Cromwell was succeeded by his son Richard who served as Lord
Protector from 1658 to 1659.
On the Web:
|
|
1660
|
Politics
|
Charles II Returns to England
|
Charles II had been crowned in Scotland in 1650, a year after
his father was executed (by beheading) in London. After a
devastating defeat by Cromwell's forces at Worcester, he lived in
exile on the Continent until he was recalled to Britain in 1660. He
was restored to the throne on his thirtieth birthday, May 29, 1660,
and crowned April 23, 1661.
On the Web:
|
|
1660
|
Literature
|
Pepys Begins Diary
|
Samuel Pepys (pronounced "Peeps" or "Pepiss"—the argument
continues) lived in Axe Yard in London, and was "clerk of the
King's Ships" and keeper of the privy seal for Charles II. He began
his diary January 1, 1660, and he meticulously recorded his
observations of his personal, social, and political life until May
31, 1669 when he abandoned the document due to his fear that his
eyesight was failing. His
diary remained at Magdalene College, Oxford in shorthand cipher
until it was "deciphered" by John Smith in 1825. The full-length
transcription is some nine volumes long.
In the Anthology:
In Images:
On the Web:
|
|
1660
|
Culture
|
Royal Society Founded
|
Beginning in 1645, scientists had been meeting as an informal
group in London to discuss their research, but it was not until
November 28, 1660, following a lecture by Christopher Wren, that
the decision was made to create what would be called "The Royal
Society." The Society met at Gresham College, and received the
approval of Charles II in the Second Royal Charter of 1663. Some of
the Royal Society's members during the Restoration were Isaac
Newton, John Dryden, John Evelyn, and Samuel Pepys.
In the Anthology:
- Perspectives: The Royal Society and the New Science
On the Web:
|
|
1660
|
Literature
|
London Theaters Reopen
|
In August 1660 Charles II licensed two acting
companies—the King's Company and the Duke's Company; hence he
permitted the reopening of London theaters which had been closed by
the Puritans in 1642. During the "Interregnum"—the period of
Puritan rule—plays had been produced privately and secretly,
but Charles' act precipitated one of the most vibrant and prolific
periods in English drama.
On the Web:
|
|
1661
|
Politics
|
Charles II Crowned
|
The year following Charles' restoration to the throne, he was
crowned in Westminster Abbey, on April 23, 1661. Samuel Pepys
recorded the magnificence of the event in his Diary: "I can say
that besides the pleasure of the sight of these glorious things, I
may now shut my eyes against any other objects, or for the future
trouble myself to see things of state and shewe, as being sure
never to see the like again in this world."
In Images:
|
|
1665
|
Literature
|
Cavendish's Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy
|
Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle, was born in 1623, the
daughter of Sir Thomas Lucas. Cavendish, a prolific writer,
produced some 14 works on topics ranging from science to biography
to philosophical discourses to poetry. Pepys wrote in his diary
that she was "a mad, conceited and ridiculous woman," although more
recently her energetic defiance of gender stereotyping has gained
the respect of modern readers.
In the Anthology:
- Cavendish, Observations Upon Experimental
Philosophy
On the Web:
|
|
1665
|
Culture
|
Hooke's Micrographia
|
Robert Hooke, born in the Isle of Wight on July 18, 1635, was a major presence in
17th century science. He entered Oxford in 1653 where he met Robert
Boyle, whom he assisted in 1655 constructing Boyle's air pump. In
1665 he was appointed professor of geometry at Gresham College in
London—home of The Royal Society--and the same year published
Micrographia, consisting of descriptions of material
he had observed under a microscope (of his own construction). Hooke
also contributed important ideas to the study of gravity and
planetary motion. As assistant to Christopher Wren Hooke
participated in Wren's plans to rebuild London after the Great
Fire. Robert Hooke died in London on March 3, 1703.
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
|
|
1665
|
Politics
|
London's Great Plague
|
Lasting from July to October, the "Great Plague" killed some
68,596 people in London. Each week, the "Bills of Mortality"
published the names of those who had died of the disease. Samuel
Pepys noted in his Diary, "I
did in Drury Lane see two or three houses marked with a red cross
on the doors, and 'Lord have mercy on us' writ there . . ."
(June 7, 1665).
In the Anthology:
In Images:
On the Web:
|
|
1666
|
Politics
|
London's Great Fire
|
From September 2 through the 9th, a fire began, according to
Samuel Pepys in his diary, "this morning in the King's baker's
house in Pudding Lane." Pepys noted: "It made me weep to see it.
The churches, houses and all on fire and flaming at once, and the
horrid noise the flames made, and the cracking of the houses at
their ruin" (September 2, 1665).
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
|
|
1667
|
Culture
|
Sprat's History of the Royal Society
|
Although the Royal Society was only
seven years old, Thomas Sprat thought it worthy of a "history." He
declared, "I shall here present to the World, an Account of the
First Institution of the
Royal Society; and of the
Progress, which they have
already made: in the hope, that this Learned and Inquisitive Age,
will either think their Indeavours, worthy of its
Assistance; or else will be
thereby provok'd, to attempt some greater Enterprise
(if any such can be found out) for the
Benefit of humane life, by the Advancement of Real
Knowledge." Sprat's
History, which might seem
otherwise premature and self-important, underscores the visible
significance of science in Restoration and Enlightenment
culture.
In the Anthology:
- Sprat, History of the Royal Society
On the Web:
|
|
1668
|
Literature
|
Behn's Oroonoko
|
Scholars argue whether Oroonoko was based on Aphra Behn's experiences in
Surinam when she was in her early twenties, or whether the work is
entirely "fiction." (Scholars believe Behn lived for a time in
Surinam, the site of the second part of the narrative, though it is
a virtual certainty she never visited Africa, site of the first
part of the narrative.) The subtitle claims Oroonoko
is "A True History," but in any
case Behn's narrative has become a major document in the history of
slavery in Africa and America. The legend of Oroonoko became the
basis for Thomas Southerne's immensely popular play
(Oroonoko) produced
late in 1695. Behn was chiefly active as a playwright and poet. Her
important plays include The Rover (1677), The Feigned Cortesans
(1689), and The Lucky
Chance (1686). During the
Restoration only John Dryden was a more productive
dramatist.
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
|
|
1672
|
Science
|
Royal Society Elects Newton
|
Isaac Newton was born in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire on January 4,
1643. He entered Trinity College,
Cambridge in June, 1661 where he intended to study law. Newton's
interests, however, soon focused on mathematics and science and he
became one of the most famous intellectuals of his age. In 1663 he
became a fellow of Trinity, and in 1669 became Lucasian
Professor. In 1672 he was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society, and the same year presented his theory of light and color
in Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society. In addition to his theory of
optics, Newton is also renowned for inventing differential and
integral calculus.
In Images:
On the Web:
|
|
1673
|
Politics
|
Test Act
|
The Test Act, an Act of Parliament put into effect on March 29,
1673, was a tool to persecute religious minorities. Among its many
effects, it prohibited Roman Catholics from holding public office,
attending universities, or being officers in the military. The Test
Act—which "tested" individuals' faith by making them take the
Anglican communion once each year—was rescinded by King James
II in 1688.
On the Web:
|
|
1673
|
Literature
|
Wycherley's The Country Wife
|
William Wycherley (1640-1716)—known as "manly Wycherley"
in his time due to his proclivity for chasing women—produced
his first play, Love in a Wood, or St James's Park, at Drury Lane in 1672. In 1673 he
produced The Country Wife. His plays epitomize the tone and wit of
Restoration comedy. He is also known for The Plain
Dealer produced in
1674.
In the Anthology:
- Wycherley, The Country Wife
On the Web:
|
|
1678 (part I)
1684 (part II)
|
Literature
|
John Bunyan, Pilgrim's Progress
|
John Bunyan's tale of the voyage of a hero named Christian to
the Celestial City became immensely popular almost immediately
after it was published. Christian carries a scroll in his hand and
a burden on his back in an allegorized spiritual voyage that
culminates in his conversion. He encounters numerous obstacles on
his journey, including the Slough of Despond, the Valley of
Humiliation, and Vanity Fair, as well as foes such as Apollyon and
Giant Despair.
In the Anthology:
- John Bunyan, from The Pilgrim's Progress
On the Web:
|
|
1678
|
Politics
|
Popish Plot
|
The Popish Plot was the creation of an Anglican priest, Titus
Oates, in which a band of Jesuits conspired to kill Charles II and
replace him with his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York.
Oates' conspiracy was used to the advantage of the Earl of
Shaftesbury who was at odds with King Charles, and wanted to
exclude James from the throne. The political machinations related
to the Popish Plot formed the background of John Dryden's
Absalom and Achitophel.
Oates finally was convicted of perjury in 1685, but not before over
eighty people had been condemned for participating in the
Plot.
On the Web:
|
|
1680
|
Literature
|
Earl of Rochester Dies
|
Samuel Johnson in his Lives of the
Poets (1779) wrote of
John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester: "He lost
all sense of religious restraint; and, finding it not convenient to
admit the authority of laws which he was resolved not to obey,
sheltered his wickedness behind infidelity." Rochester died
at the young age of 33—probably of syphilis—but
repented his riotous life on his deathbed. He left a brilliant
poetic legacy. While Rochester's poems' representation of sexual
encounters may at first challenge readers' moral sensibility, a
more patient reading may pique readers to question their moral
assumptions.
In the Anthology:
- John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester
On the Web:
|
|
1681
|
Literature
|
Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel
|
John Dryden (1631-1700) served the king as poet laureate, and
Absalom and Achitophel served as a defense of Charles II against the
political assaults of Whig protestants, especially the earl of
Shaftesbury. Lacking a "legitimate" heir, the prospect loomed of a
Roman Catholic successor: Charles' brother James, Duke of
York.
In the Anthology:
- Dryden, Absalom and Achitophel
On the Web:
|
|
1685
|
Politics
|
Charles II Dies
|
Charles II died February 6, 1685 in Whitehall Palace in London.
As the English king, Charles was required to be a professing
Anglican, though many were convinced he was a Roman Catholic at
heart. These suspicions were confirmed when Charles took the last
rites of the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed. He was buried
in Westminster Abbey. Charles was succeeded by his brother James,
the Duke of York, who became James II.
|
|
1685
|
Politics
|
Battle of Sedgemoor
|
A dominating question of English politics focused for many years
on who would succeed Charles II. One element of the question was
settled at the battle of Sedgmoor. James Scott was the illegitimate
son of Charles II and Lucy Walter. Born in 1649, he returned to
England in 1662 and was made Duke of Monmouth by his father.
(Monmouth was represented as Absalom in John Dryden's Absalom
and Achitophel.) Following the
death of Charles II, his brother James, Duke of York, assumed the
throne. Convinced that he was the rightful heir to the throne,
Monmouth challenged James II in what is known as "Monmouth's
Rebellion." Monmouth assembled a small army but was defeated July 6
at the battle of Sedgmoor. Following his capture, Monmouth was
taken to the Tower of London and beheaded. Other members of the
rebellion were victims of "The Bloody Assizes" where the judge,
Chief Justice George Jeffreys, condemned over 300 to death. The
hangman was the legendary "Jack Ketch."
In the Anthology:
- Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel
On the Web:
|
|
1688
|
Politics
|
Glorious
Revolution
|
Following his accession to the throne, James II enacted
legislation that eliminated the Test Act and the Act of Uniformity
thereby permitting dissenters and Roman Catholics to worship
openly. In June the birth of a son, James (who later became known
as the "Old Pretender") promised further Roman Catholic rule of
England. This caused the "Glorious Revolution" (sometimes called
the "Bloodless Revolution") when Protestant leaders invited William
of Orange—who was married to Mary, James' daughter but who
was a Protestant—to assume the throne. With the help of Irish
and French supporters, James contested the accession of William and
Mary, but he was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.
On the Web:
|
|
1690
|
Literature
|
Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding
|
John Locke (1632-1704) had worked on An Essay Concerning
Human Understanding since 1671
but did not publish it until March 1690. Although Locke wrote
singularly important essays on government and education,
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding established his reputation as the founder of
English empirical philosophy, the science of how we learn. Locke
introduced the idea of "tabula rasa" (blank slate), insisting we
have no ideas at birth, but acquire all ideas from experience.
Locke's treatises serve as a foundation for many later schools of
philosophy. He died October 28, 1704.
In the Anthology:
- Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding
On the Web:
|
|
1694
|
Literature
|
Mary Astell
|
Mary Astell was born November 12, 1666 in Newcastle-on-Tyne.
After the deaths of both of her parents by the time she was 17, she
moved to London where she likely lived with Lady Catherine Jones
who introduced her to many female intellectuals. In 1694 she
published A Serious Proposal To The
Ladies For the Advancement of Their True and Greatest
Interest, a work that established her as one of the
founders of early modern feminism. One copy of the first edition of
A Serious Proposal is
inscribed in Astell's handwriting to Lady Mary Wortley Montagu.
Mary Astell died of breast cancer on May 9,
1731.
In the Anthology:
- Astell, Some Reflections Upon Marriage
On the Web:
|
|
1697
|
Culture
|
St. Paul's Cathedral Opens
|
There has been a "St. Paul's" on the
same site in London since 604. A Norman version of St. Paul's was
under reconstruction in the 1660s, when it was consumed by the
Great Fire in 1666. Sir Christopher Wren was commissioned to
supervise the design and reconstruction of St. Paul's and it became
the largest cathedral in Britain. The project was completed in 1710
following 35 years' work. On December 2, 1697 the cathedral choir
was reopened.
In Images:
On the Web:
|
|
1698
|
Literature
|
Collier's
Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage
|
Jeremy Collier attacked Restoration
comedy because, as his treatise's title makes explicit, the theatre
had abandoned its purpose to delight and instruct exemplary
conduct. Collier claimed that the stage "debauched both in practice
and principle," and taught "libertinism and profaneness, dressing,
idleness, and gallantry" and consequently would induce people to be
"lazy, lewd, and extravagant." A middle-class readership evidently
agreed, and Collier's ideas had an impact on the character and
direction of Restoration comedy.
On the Web:
|
|
1700
|
Literature
|
Congreve's The Way of the
World
|
The Way of the World was produced at Lincoln's Inn
Fields, but was not well received. This was Congreve's last play to
be produced, and his career as a dramatist was at an end by age 30.
The play, while perhaps the most sophisticated—yet
complicated—of Restoration comedies, elicited the contempt of
individuals like Jeremy Collier who demanded a more morally
instructive element in comedy.
|
|
1700
|
Literature
|
Astell's Reflections on Marriage
|
Some Reflections Upon Marriage Occasioned by the Duke and Duchess of Mazarine's
Case argues it is in a woman's best
interest not to marry since she will relinquish her independence
and find "entire subjection" and her life will be consumed by
"pleasing their lords and masters" at the expense of reason and
spiritual fulfillment.
In the Anthology:
- Astell, Some Reflections Upon Marriage
On the Web:
|
|
1701
|
Literature
|
Lady Chudleigh
|
Lady Mary
Chudleigh was a friend of Mary Astell and shared the latter's
feminist convictions. The Ladies Defence: or the Bride-Woman's
Counsellor Answered: A Poem. In a Dialogue Between Sir John Brute,
Sir William Loveall, Melissa, and a Parson (1701) is her most famous work,
though she published collections of poetry in 1703 and 1710, the
year of her death.
On the Web:
|
|
1702
|
Politics
|
Queen Anne Crowned
|
Queen Anne was the second child of James, Duke of
York—later James II—and Mary of Modena. In 1683 she
married Prince George of Denmark, and she assumed the throne in
1702 upon the death of King William who had no heirs. During her
reign she presided over the Act of Union (1707) that united
England, Scotland, and Wales. Queen Anne was the last of the Stuart
rulers. She suffered many miscarriages and could not produce a
surviving offspring. Anne died July 31, 1714. She was succeeded by
King George I, the first of the Hanoverian rulers of Britain.
In Images:
On the Web:
|
|
1704
|
Literature
|
Swift's Tale of a Tub
|
Jonathan Swift's A Tale of a Tub was begun in 1696 but not published until 1704.
This philosophical discourse is based on the dispute of brothers
Peter, Martin, and Jack (representing, respectively, the Roman
Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican churches). It is as famous for its
"digressions" on ancient and modern learning—and
madness—as it is for its religious arguments.
|
|
1711
|
Literature
|
Pope's An Essay on Criticism
|
An Essay on Criticism was published when Alexander Pope
was just 23 years-old—and written, allegedly, when he was
twenty-one! The poem attempted to define literary taste by citing
Pope's understanding of the rules exemplified by ancient writers.
Pope pilloried several modern writers whose work, he believed,
exemplified bad taste, and this did not elicit the good will of
many of his contemporaries.
In the Anthology:
- Pope, An Essay on Criticism
In Images:
On the Web:
|
|
1712-1714
|
Literature
|
Pope's Rape of the Lock
|
Born in London to Roman Catholic parents, Alexander Pope's
religion prohibited him from receiving a "public" education at a
school such as Eton or Winchester, or attending a university such
as Oxford or Cambridge. Pope was largely self-educated, teaching
himself Greek and Latin. He contracted tuberculosis of the spine at
the age of 12; he remained weak and in pain the rest of his life.
At 16, he published his Pastorals, and between 1712 and 1726 Pope translated
Homer's Iliad (1715-20) and Odyssey (1725-26) and this work made him
financially independent. His work is extensive, but he nearly
always follows Aristotle's guideline to "delight and instruct" and
his work is therefore amusing yet simultaneously enlightening. Pope
is best known for his An Essay on Criticism (1711), The Rape of the
Lock (1712-14), The
Dunciad (1728), and
An Essay on Man (1733-34).
Pope died in 1744.
In the Anthology:
- Pope's The Rape of the Lock and The
Dunciad
On the Web:
|
|
1713
|
Literature
|
Finch's Miscellany Poems
|
Anne Kingsmill was born in Wiltshire in April 1661, the daughter
of Sir William Kingsmill and Anne Haslewood. She was orphaned by
the age of four, and grew up and was educated in the care of an
extended family. In 1682 Anne went to live at St. James palace as a
Maid of Honour to Mary of Modena, wife of James, Duke of York. At
court she met Heneage Finch whom she married May 15, 1684. In 1690,
after the Glorious Revolution, the Finches moved to Kent where they
sought seclusion from the political turmoil of court. Anne's
writing prospered, and she published Miscellany Poems on Several
Occasions in 1713. She was a
friend of Pope, Swift and Gay. Anne Finch died on August 5,
1720.
On the Web:
|
|
1717-1724
|
Literature
|
Montagu's Turkish Embassy Letters
|
Daughter of the wealthy First Duke of Kingston, Mary Pierrepont
was a precocious child who learned Latin before she was eight. When
Edward Wortley Montagu asked her father for Mary's hand in
marriage, he was denied, so the couple eloped in 1712, and had a
child in 1713. Montagu is known as feminist, intellectual, and
poet. Her poems "Epistle from Mrs. Yonge to her Husband" and "The
Lover: A Ballad" engender
a feminist idealism, while The Turkish Embassy
Letters introduced English readers to Eastern culture.
Lady Mary is also famous for introducing to England the practice of
inoculation against smallpox, a skill she learned while living in
Turkey with her husband who was ambassador. (Lady Mary was
disfigured by smallpox in 1715, and her brother died from the
disease.) She died in 1762.
On the Web:
|
|
1719
|
Literature
|
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe
|
Daniel Defoe was born in London in the summer of 1660, the son
of a butcher, James Foe. (Defoe altered his surname in 1703.) Defoe
was a failure as a merchant, and began his publishing career in
1701 with The True-born Englishman, followed in 1702 with The Shortest
Way with the Dissenters. His
most famous works are Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Moll Flanders (1720). During his prolific writing
career, Defoe published over 250 works.
In the Anthology:
On the Web:
|
|
1726
|
Literature
|
Swift's Gulliver's Travels
|
The proper title of what we now know as Jonathan Swift's
Gulliver's Travels is
Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World, in Four
Parts. Published first in 1726
in London—a second edition with prefatory letters was
published in Dublin in 1735—the narrative of Lemuel Gulliver,
a ship's surgeon, proved one of the most popular publications of
all time, read by children yet the focus of study and dispute by
scholars. In addition to its critique of social, economic, and
religious practices, the work gave the English language such common
terms as "Lilliputian" and "yahoo." In the 19 century, Thackeray
described the book as "furious, raging, obscene."
On the Web:
|
|
1728
|
Literature
|
Gay's Beggar's Opera
|
Gay—poet, dramatist, and friend of Swift and Pope—is
most famous for his Beggar's Opera (1728). The opera, which was allegedly inspired
by Swift, moved the site of operatic drama from heroic or exotic
settings to Newgate prison where the characters were
common—and not so common—criminals. (Several of the
inmate-characters satirize contemporary politicians, most notably
the Prime Minister, Robert Walpole in the guise of Macheath, a
highwayman.) Gay made £800 from the opera, and this made him
wealthy by the day's standards. John Gay was born at Barnstaple in
Devon in 1685. He died in 1732 and was buried in Westminster Abbey
with the epitaph: "Life is a jest, and
all things show it; / I thought so once, and now I know
it."
In the Anthology:
In Images:
On the Web:
|
|
1735
|
Culture
|
Hogarth's Rake's Progress
|
William Hogarth was born in London in
1697. His work as an illustrator documents visually the social and
political turbulence and domestic realities of 18th century
England. His graphic works complement the literary anatomy of
society found in the written works of Defoe, Richardson and
Fielding.
In the Anthology:
- Hogarth, A Rake's Progress
On the Web:
|
|
1745
|
Literature
|
Swift Dies
|
In the 1730s, Swift contracted Meniere's Disease, a malady of
the inner ear which causes dizziness and the appearance of
intoxication or derangement. In 1742 he suffered a paralytic
stroke. In his last years, Swift was placed under the care of
guardians and he died in Dublin on October 19, 1745.
|
|
1751
|
Literature
|
Gray's "Elegy"
|
Thomas Gray was born in London in 1716, and attended Eton
College—the subject of one of his most memorable poems ("Ode
on a Distant Prospect of Eton College"). Gray studied at Cambridge
and remained there on the faculty after 1742. After the death of
Colley Cibber, Gray was offered, but declined, the poet
laureateship. He was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History
in 1768. Gray's most famous work is "Elegy Written in a Country
Churchyard." "Elegy" situates Gray in the "Graveyard School" of
18th century poetry along with Edward Young and Robert Blair.
In the Anthology:
- Gray, "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard"
|
|
1755
|
Literature
|
Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language
|
Samuel Johnson began his dictionary in 1746 and expected the
project would require three years to complete. The task of
researching and writing the dictionary is one of the legends of
Western literary and intellectual history. The Dictionary
of the English Language was finally published in 1755.
In the Anthology:
- Johnson, Dictionary of the English Language
In Images:
|
Back to Introduction
|
