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Early Modern Timeline |
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1509 – 1547 |
Politics |
Henry VIII's Reign |
Henry's reign is perhaps best remembered today for its controversies. Henry's intense desire for a male heir led to conflicts over his marriages, and religious tensions were high as reformers challenged policies and practices established by the Church of Rome. On the Web:
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1509 |
Literature |
Erasmus' In Praise of Folly |
Desiderius Erasmus was an influential Dutch scholar associated with humanism, a school of thought characterized in part by a fondness for Greek and Roman classics and faith in the beneficial effects of rigorous education on human character. In Praise of Folly is a satire in which the character Folly ironically praises issues Erasmus saw as problems of his time, such as church abuses and ignorance. On the Web:
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1516 |
Literature |
More's Utopia |
A prominent intellectual and spiritual figure in late 15th- and early 16th century England, Sir Thomas More was a humanist whose Catholicism eventually came into conflict with King Henry VIII's desire to divorce—he was executed in 1535 after refusing to take an oath recognizing Henry as supreme head of the English church. Utopia satirizes European society and describes an ideal state, but the ambiguities of how this state actually functions in More's work are still a source of critical controversy. In the Anthology:
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1517 |
Culture |
Luther's 95 Theses |
Martin Luther's 95 Theses, which he nailed to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenburg, criticized indulgences, the church practice of effectively excusing church members from worldly penalties for sin (often in exchange for money). Many view Luther's act and the controversy that ensued as a key event in the early years of the Reformation. On the Web: In Images: |
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1528 |
Culture |
Tyndale's Obedience of a Christian Man |
One of William Tyndale's lasting contributions to religious thought was his translation of an English version of the New Testament. This translation became the basis for the King James version of the Bible, which still attracts an exceptionally wide readership. Tyndale's work, The Obedience of a Christian Man, is notable both for its religious elements and for its usefulness as a window into the turmoil of the age: Tyndale advocates obedience to the king, but he would later attack Henry VIII's plans to divorce. In the Anthology:
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1532 |
Literature |
Machiavelli's The Prince |
For Niccolo Machiavelli, the prince was one who exercised power with both reason and vitality: something Machiavelli called "virtœ." Part of what made The Prince unique in its time—and has kept Machiavelli's theories of government a robust topic —was the notion that a ruler must sometimes set aside morals and religion in order to preserve the state. On the Web:
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1536 |
Culture |
Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion |
John Calvin was a key figure in the development of the Reformation; he was particularly influential in Geneva. His Institutes began from some of the same premises set forth by Martin Luther, but added important elements, such as the doctrine of predestination. One of the features that would eventually split Calvinists from Lutherans was the Calvinist emphasis on spiritual worship and opposition to material forms of worship, such as idolatry. On the Web:
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1538 |
Politics |
Henry VIII Excommunicated |
Henry, hoping to produce a male heir to the throne, unsuccessfully sought the pope's approval to divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn. He responded to the rejection of his request by gaining annulment of his marriage to Catherine from Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, and his resulting excommunication would soon lead to England's break from the Church of Rome. |
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1538 |
Literature |
John Bale's King John |
Bale's King John is a morality play, a religious drama in which the characters are personified human characteristics such as vice and virtue. King John, distinctly anti-Catholic in sentiment, is particularly significant for its allegorized portrait of political and religious leaders, which helped lay the ground for the literary technique later used in history plays by writers like Shakespeare. On the Web:
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1547 – 1553 |
Politics |
Edward VI's Reign |
Edward VI was young—only nine years-old—when he became king, and his ill health fated him to die a young king, the victim of tuberculosis. Edward was staunchly Protestant and sought to secure a Protestant successor to his throne by blocking the succession of his Catholic half-sister, Mary Tudor. He then named his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, the next monarch. Her reign lasted only nine days; Mary's supporters ousted the new queen, who was imprisoned and later executed. On the Web:
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1549 |
Culture |
1st Act of Uniformity |
This Act of Uniformity, the first of several that would follow in the upcoming years, made the Book of Common Prayer the only acceptable liturgy in English churches. On the Web:
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1553 – 1558 |
Politics |
Mary I's Reign |
Mary I, the first female head of state in England, did what she could to close the rift between England and Rome that had split open during her father's reign. As part of her efforts, she revived laws that made religious dissent cause for execution, and the stories of the martyrs who were burned at the stake during the queen's reign—later circulated widely in John Foxe's The Book of Martyrs—became a strong source of religious inspiration for Protestants. Mary's unpopular marriage to Philip of Spain resulted in no children, so Elizabeth inherited the throne after her half-sister's death. In the Anthology:
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1553 |
Culture |
42 Articles Issued |
These articles defined the bread and wine of the Eucharist as symbols of the body and blood of Christ and argued for justification solely by faith, not by works. Revised and expanded, they would eventually form the basis for the Thirty-Nine Articles, which would be approved during the reign of Elizabeth I. The doctrines defined in the articles marked an important step in the development of the Church of England. |
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1554 |
Politics |
Wyatt's Rebellion |
Opposed to Mary I's plans to marry Philip of Spain, Sir Thomas Wyatt attempted to gather forces to oust Mary and place Elizabeth on the throne. His rebellion was unsuccessful, and he and many of his co-conspirators were executed in 1554. The rebellion catalyzed the execution of Lady Jane Grey and generated suspicion over how (or whether) Elizabeth had supported Wyatt's efforts. On the Web:
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1558 – 1603 |
Politics |
Elizabeth I's Reign |
Elizabeth I's long reign is remembered as a time when religious controversies in England diminished, when the arts and literature flourished, and when voyages of discovery began an era of empire-building. A well-loved monarch, the "virgin queen" never married. Sir Walter Raleigh's poetry celebrates and laments her magnetic authority. In the Anthology:
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1563 |
Culture |
Foxe's The Book of Martyrs |
John Foxe's Acts and Monuments, commonly known as The Book of Martyrs, graphically chronicles the executions of Protestant martyrs during the reign of Mary I. It was first published in Latin in 1559; John Day published an English version in 1563. The Book of Martyrs became astoundingly popular: it was reprinted many times, and the only book that had wider circulation was the Bible. In the Anthology:
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1564 - 1593 |
Literature |
Marlowe |
Shakespeare's chief commercial and artistic rival, Christopher Marlowe wrote both poetry and drama, including the celebrated A Passionate Shepherd to His Love and the masterful tragedy Doctor Faustus. Involved in clandestine politics and accused of atheism, blasphemy, and treason, Marlowe may have been as subversive as some of his prideful characters. His tragic figures are propelled by unquenchable desires that overrun religious stricture, social decorum, and political wisdom. The language of his dramas is also remarkable for bringing the rhythms of natural speech to the theater. In the Anthology:
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1572 |
Culture |
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre |
The massacre of thousands of French Protestants, known as Huguenots, took place after a plan to assassinate Huguenot Admiral Coligny failed. In response, Catholic leaders planned a general massacre which began in Paris but spread to many different areas of France over the weeks following the initial slaughter. Historians estimate that the death total reached approximately 70,000 after two months. The massacre helps illustrates how religious tensions in Europe still ran high, and how Catholics had continued to battle reform in what is often called the Counter-Reformation. On the Web:
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1585 - 1595 |
Literature |
Montaigne's Essays |
Michel de Montaigne was a French humanist whose writing helped shape currents in European philosophical and political thought, as well as the essay as a literary form. On the Web:
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1588 |
Politics |
Spanish Armada's Defeat |
The defeat of the Spanish Armada is one of the most significant military victories in English history. Elizabeth's forces overcame a powerful attempt by Spanish forces to invade the country, and the victory secured Elizabeth's status as a leadership figure. Before the conflict, she made a famous speech—"To the English Troops at Tilbury, Facing the Spanish Armada"—that addressed her readiness to lead the troops to victory: though Elizabeth was a woman, she ruled and spoke "in the word of a prince." In the Anthology:
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1589-96 |
Literature |
Spenser's The Faerie Queene |
Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene, his most important work, is a long and multi-layered poem that draws on epic models to create an allegory of the reign of Queen Elizabeth specifically, and of English political and religious events more generally. As Spenser explained to Sir Walter Raleigh in an opening letter, the story is unified by the presence of King Arthur, who appears at intervals throughout the work. This helps emphasize the historical and national dimensions of the poem, even as they are cast in terms of more contemporary concerns, such as the Protestant mistrust of the Church of Rome. In the Anthology:
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1593 |
Literature |
Sidney's Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia |
The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, a pastoral romance, examines the complexities—and sometimes the weaknesses—of human character when passion clouds reason or stunts action. It also explicitly raises questions of right rule: what does it mean to rule justly and with reason, and when is reason best tempered by feeling? Sidney died before he could complete the revisions he had planned on the first version of this long, prose work. A second version, the New Arcadia, was published in 1590. The third version, the Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, was published in 1593 with the help of Sidney's sister, Mary Herbert; it combines revised and unrevised books from the first two versions. In the Anthology:
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1594 |
Culture |
Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity |
Richard Hooker's Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity is significant both as an apology for the Elizabethan government and as a seminal work on the fundamental tenets of Anglicanism. These included reliance on the Bible and emphasis on the unity of church and state. In the Anthology:
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1594 |
Literature |
Shakespeare Begins Career |
In 1594, several years after moving to London from Stratford-on-Avon, Shakespeare joined a leading theater troop, Chamberlain's Men, inaugurating his career as actor and playwright. The publication of Shakespeare's Sonnets during his lifetime helped secure his literary reputation, though he was already well-known as a playwright and actor. His plays would not be published until after his death, when John Heminges and Henry Condell gathered them and published the First Folio (1623). In the Anthology:
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1598 |
Politics |
James I's True Law of Free Monarchies |
James wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies in 1598 and reissued it when he acceded to the English throne in 1603. In it, James sets out a philosophy of royal absolutism justified by divine right: the king is the representative of God on earth, and thus warrants complete obedience and loyalty. In the Anthology:
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1603 – 1625 |
Politics |
James I's Reign |
James I was King of Scotland when he inherited the throne from Elizabeth, and he ruled over both kingdoms until his death. Foreign conflicts escalated and loomed during James's reign, and the king often wrangled with Parliament over financial shortages. On the domestic front, the arts and literature continued to flourish. On the Web:
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1605 |
Culture |
Bacon's Advancement of Learning |
Sir Francis Bacon's The Advancement of Learning critiques the classical underpinnings of humanist education, arguing in favor of a more scientific form of learning. For Bacon, careful observation of nature had a pure, spiritual dimension; the modern idea that science and religion are distinct had yet to take hold. Bacon's ideas in The Advancement of Learning, in the scientific treatise Instauratio Magna, and in various other works helped shape the scientific revolution. His writing itself was an important contribution to the development of English prose. In the Anthology:
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1606 |
Literature |
Jonson's Volpone |
Ben Jonson is often regarded as second only to Shakespeare in his skills as a dramatist, and Volpone is one of his most accomplished plays. The eponymous protagonist and Mosca plot their way through a drama that exhibits exquisite stylistic control on the part of its author. At the same time, Jonson maintains a comic pace that imbues the scenes with a feeling of spontaneity. In the Anthology:
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1606 |
Politics |
Gunpowder Plot Conspirators
Executed |
In 1605, a group of young Catholics devised a plot to blow up the English government by igniting kegs of gunpowder during a session of Parliament. The conspirators' confidence was betrayed by Lord Monteagle, and Guy Fawkes was caught on the verge of lighting the fuse. Several of the conspirators and Fawkes were executed. The event helps shed light on the ways in which religious differences had remained a source of conflict in England. On the Web:
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1607 |
Politics |
Jamestown Founded |
The first American colony, Jamestown was founded by a group of Londoners who had formed the Virginia Company, and who would soon find that the task of creating a colony in an untamed land was a difficult one indeed. Late 16th century accounts of the initial voyages to the American coast, such as Arthur Barlow's The First Voyage Made to the Coasts of America and Thomas Hariot's A Brief and True Report of the Newfound Land of Virginia, tell of the years leading up to the founding of Jamestown. They vividly describe early encounters with native populations and many of the issues—such as the devastating effects of European diseases upon Indians—that colonization raised. In the Anthology:
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1611 |
Culture |
King James Bible Published |
The version of the Bible authorized by King James remains one of the most widely-read English Bibles in circulation today. In the Anthology:
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1611 |
Literature |
Aemilia Lanyer, Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum |
Lanyer's volume of poetry, a meditation on the Passion of Christ, is remarkable for its radical insistence on the social and religious equality of women; many modern readers would label Lanyer's views on gender "feminist." Moreover, "The Description of Cookham," has the distinction of being the first country house poem published in English. In the Anthology:
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1618 – 1648 |
Politics |
30 Years War |
Begun in 1618 when the Bohemians revolted against the Habsburgs, the Thirty Years War pitted the Habsburgs and the Spanish against the French, Swedish, and Dutch. Though England did not play a primary role in the war, largely due to a shortage of funds, England did become involved in wars with Spain in 1625 and with France in 1627. The Thirty Years War ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. On the Web:
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| 1620 |
Culture |
Hic Mulier and Haec-Vir |
Hic Mulier (The Man-Woman) and Haec-Vir (The Womanish Man) were pamphlets published anonymously in 1620. They offer a fascinating window into debates over gender and clothing in the 17th century. By making a case for the wearing of sex-appropriate attire, the pamphlets illustrate a connection between gender, clothing, and hierarchy. Moreover, in taking up the case against cross-dressing, Hic Mulier and Haec Vir stake out a position on a topic that was a popular theatrical theme, as well as a subject that provoked consternation in conservative circles. In the Anthology:
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1621 |
Literature |
Wroth's Urania |
Lady Mary Wroth's The Countess of Montgomery's Urania is a pastoral romance that centers around the story of the lovers Pamphilia and Amphilanthus. One of the primary themes of the work is fidelity; Pamphilia insists that her lover prove he is worthy by remaining faithful to her. The book caused quite a stir after it was published: Edward Denny, Baron of Waltham, accused Wroth of slander, and we can perhaps attribute the fact that she continued to write but published little to the controversy that ensued. In the Anthology:
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1625 – 1649 |
Politics |
Charles I's Reign |
Charles I's reign had a rocky start that, unfortunately, set the tone for the years to come. He became embroiled in wars with the Spanish and with the French, who themselves were fighting on opposite sides in the Thirty Years' War. The failure of expeditions and financial straits brought him into repeated conflicts with Parliament. In 1629, Charles decided that he would not again call Parliament, and he ruled without it for 11 years. However, he found it necessary to call Parliament again when his attempts to impose the English Prayer Book on Scottish Presbyterians failed, resulting in a rebellion. Additional disagreements with Parliament took place in the wake of an Irish uprising in 1941, and soon, Charles found himself in the midst of a civil war. More civil wars would follow, and the English Army, which had sided with Parliament against the king, eventually decided that Charles must be executed. A "Rump Parliament" comprised of a small percentage of the full Parliament tried him for treason, and he was beheaded in 1649. On the Web:
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1629 |
Culture |
Rubens Visits England |
Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish painter known for his stylistic prowess and innovation. The demand for his work was enormous, and patrons included Charles I, who knighted him. He was arguably the most influential painter of his time; centuries later, artists such as Watteau, Delacroix, and Renoir would draw inspiration from Rubens. Nearly every gallery of consequence in Europe now exhibits some of his work On the Web:
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1631 |
Literature |
John Donne Dies |
Donne's literary corpus consists of numerous love poems, racy and sometimes explicitly erotic, from his youth; devotional verse written during a long period of spiritual and emotional doubt; and his Sermons, which had garnered him respect as a preacher when he delivered them as part of his position as a man of the church. In the Anthology:
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1632 |
Culture |
Prynne's Histrio-Mastix |
William Prynne's Histrio-Mastix was one of several tracts published as a result of anti-theatrical sentiment among Puritans. Interpreted as an attack on Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Histrio-Mastix landed Prynne before the Star Chamber, where he was severely penalized: one of his punishments was the cropping of his ears. |
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1641 |
Politics |
Star Chamber Abolished |
Parliament's abolishment of the Star
Chamber was significant in part because the Star Chamber had acted
as a licensing authority and had enacted laws that prohibited
publications on certain topics. Once the laws no longer held,
pamphlets and other texts that commented on English events and
politics circulated much more widely. On the Web:
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1642 – 1651 |
Politics |
English Civil Wars |
The English Civil Wars involved several different armed conflicts, first between the King and those loyal to him (the Royalists) and Parliament. The Scots joined forces with Parliament in 1643, and Charles found it necessary to turn himself over to the Scottish army. After several years of attempts to negotiate peace, the English Army purged Parliament of those who favored continuing attempts at peace. This left the Rump Parliament, which had Charles I executed for treason. Armed invasions of Ireland and Scotland followed in 1649 and 1650. In the Anthology:
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| 1642 |
Culture |
Theaters Closed |
The Puritans, believing the stage to be immoral, closed the theaters in England and prohibited acting. While some authors continued to write plays, performances were clandestine, often taking place in private homes. The theaters would not reopen until 1660. On the Web:
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1649 – 1660 |
Politics |
Interregnum |
The Interregnum describes the period from the abolition of the monarchy until its restoration with Charles II. The first four years of the Interregnum are known as the Commonwealth; during this time, the Rump Parliament held power. The years from 1653 to 1659, when Oliver and then Richard Cromwell were Lords Protector, are known as the Protectorate. On the Web:
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1651 |
Culture |
Hobbes' Leviathan |
Thomas Hobbes believed that humankind was not naturally peaceful or predisposed to civility. Government served as a contract between a ruler and a people and effectively saved them from themselves by staving off the chaos of the "State of Nature." The members of a society must consent to being ruled by a sovereign, and the sovereign is obligated to maintain order. Without this order, "the life of man is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." In the Anthology:
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1660 – 1685 |
Politics |
Charles II's Reign |
Charles II's restoration to the throne in 1660 did not mark the end of conflicts between the monarchy and Parliament. Charles attempted to institute a policy of religious toleration through the Declaration of Indulgence, but his largely Anglican Parliament forced him to accept the Test Act, which re-instituted penalties against Catholics and dissenters. In the aftermath of the Popish Plot, supposedly a Jesuit plan to murder the king, Parliament attempted on three occasions to introduce Exclusion Bills that would bar his brother James from the throne; Charles responded by dissolving those assemblies. He pursued alliances with the French, and though relations with the Dutch were hostile in the beginning of Charles' reign, he opted for an alliance by marrying Mary, his brother's daughter, to William of Orange. On the Web:
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1660 |
Culture |
Royal Society Founded |
The Royal Society was founded in 1660 to promote scientific inquiry. Religion and politics were excluded from the Society's charter, which it received in 1662. In the Anthology:
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1667 |
Literature |
Milton's Paradise Lost |
John Milton's epic poem retells the story of Adam and Eve's expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Notable not only for its literary elements—the vividness of its characters and language, the crafting of its lines—but also as a showcase for Milton's religious, historical, and scientific knowledge, Paradise Lost is one of the great masterpieces of English literature. In the Anthology:
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1678 (part I) 1684 (part II) |
Literature |
Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress |
John Bunyan's tale of the voyage of a hero named Christian to the Celestial City became immensely popular almost immediately after it was published. Christian carries a scroll in his hand and a burden on his back in an allegorized spiritual voyage that culminates in his conversion. He encounters numerous obstacles on his journey, including the Slough of Despond, the Valley of Humiliation, and Vanity Fair, as well as foes such as Apollyon and Giant Despair. In the Anthology:
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