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Chapter 21 |
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As the American frontier “closed,” many in America pushed for new frontiers of an empire for exploration, settlement, and new markets.
America Looks Outward
In contrast to prior expansion into contiguous territories intended for settlement and equal annexation, the United States in the 1890s acquired island colonies intended as naval bases and commercial outposts for the expansion and protection of American markets.
Catching the Spirit of Empire
Immediately after the Civil War, Americans were concerned almost exclusively with domestic concerns leading to a sense of isolationism. After the 1870s, however, Americans, linked to the world through new communication technologies, began to take a greater interest in international affairs, and even expansion. Still, few Americans were interested in imperialism.
Reasons for Expansion
Stimulated by a closing frontier and an expanding economy at home, the United States became increasingly interested in the worldwide scramble for colonies in the latter nineteenth century. Advocates of Anglo-Saxon racial superiority exhorted expansion of American trade and dominion as both our duty and destiny in “civilizing” the less advanced regions of the world.
Foreign Policy Approaches, 1867-1900
During this era, American policymakers were rarely consistent, but basically sought to avoid entanglements in Europe while expanding American trade, and perhaps territory, in Latin American and Asia. The United States reasserted the Monroe Doctrine and promoted Pan-American interests.
The Lure of Hawaii and Samoa
The Hawaiian and Samoan Islands attracted Americans primarily as stepping stones to the valuable trade of the Far East and as strategic locations for South Pacific naval bases. American residents in Hawaii instigated a revolution and the creation of a republican government in 1893, but the United States resisted annexation of the islands until 1898. After first acquiring a naval station in Samoa in 1878, the United States divided the island chain with Germany in 1899.
The New Navy
Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, naval strategist and historian, convinced many Americans of the need for an expanded navy to guarantee the nation’s wealth and power in international affairs. Benjamin F. Tracy, secretary of the navy under President Benjamin Harrison, pushed Congress to begin a build-up program that would move the United States from twelfth among world navies in 1889 to third by 1900.
War with Spain
The brief war with Spain increased American confidence, strengthened the office of the presidency, dramatically enlarged the United States’ empire, and made the United States the dominant force in the twentieth century.
A War for Principle
In 1895, economic depression and discontent with Spanish rule led to revolution in Cuba. Spain responded with a policy of brutal repression. Exaggerated accounts of Spanish atrocities by America’s “yellow press,” the publication of a letter written by the Spanish ambassador in Washington insulting President McKinley, and the sinking of the American battleship Maine in Havana harbor all contributed to a growing clamor for United States intervention in the war on behalf of Cuban independence. Dissatisfied with Spain’s response to Cuban and American demands, President McKinley called for war in April 1898. The passage of the Teller Amendment assured Americans that the war was not a war for the acquisition of Cuba.
“A Splendid Little War”
Congress and the American public responded enthusiastically to war. More soldiers volunteered to fight than could be trained, fed, or equipped. The war lasted only ten weeks and resulted in relatively few American deaths—more to tropical diseases than battle—prompting the soon-to-be secretary of state John Hay's famous observation of the conflict as “a splendid little war.” Many of the units that fought in the war were National Guard units, and they mirrored many of the changes in American society.
“Smoked Yankees”
Certain that African-American men could resist tropical diseases, United States military officials recruited them as soldiers. Although subjected to segregation and discrimination, these “smoked Yankees” (as the Spanish troops referred to them) responded bravely and played a crucial role in the American invasion and takeover of Cuba.
The Course of the War
American military operations began with a stunning naval victory directed by Commodore George Dewey over the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, resulting in the U. S. occupation of the Philippine Islands. In the Caribbean, the United States invaded Cuba, captured Santiago, occupied Puerto Rico, and destroyed Spain’s only remaining battle fleet, forcing Spain’s surrender in August 1898. Only 379 Americans died in battle, but more than 5,200 died of disease or accidents.
Acquisition of Empire
The treaty ending the Spanish-American War called for Spanish recognition of Cuban independence; Spanish cession of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands to the United States; and U.S. payment of $20 million to Spain.
The Treaty of Paris Debate
Promptly submitted to the Senate for ratification, the Treaty of Paris set off a storm of debate throughout the country. Members of an Anti-Imperialistic League argued that American acquisition of colonies would prove to be undemocratic, costly, and potentially harmful to the interests of labor and racial harmony. Proponents of imperialism repeated the economic, strategic, and intellectual arguments justifying American expansionism. The Senate ratified the treaty in February 1899, with only two votes to spare.
Guerrilla Warfare in the Philippines
Demanding independence, Filipino insurgents led by Emilio Aguinaldo fought a guerrilla war against American takeover of the islands. Proving much more difficult and costly than the war against Spain, the Philippine-American War (1899-1902) convinced American leaders of the need to prepare the island archipelago for eventual self-government.
Governing the Empire
In a series of cases from 1901 to 1904, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution does not automatically “follow the flag” but that Congress could extend American constitutional provisions to territories as it saw fit. Hawaii, Alaska, Guam, and Puerto Rico were organized as dependencies. Hawaii and Alaska both became territories soon after and later states. Puerto Rico also became a territory by the Foraker Act of 1900. Cuba was granted “independence,” but forced to include the Platt Amendment in her constitution, allowing for special privileges for the United States, including the right of intervention.
The Open Door
By the end of the nineteenth century, outside powers had carved China into spheres of influence, threatening to reduce or even eliminate American economic interests there. Through a series of diplomatic notes written in 1899-1900, Secretary of State John Hay urged an “Open Door” policy in China that preserved for China some semblance of national authority over its territory and trade. The “Open Door” policy would allow the United States access to commercial opportunities equal to the other foreign powers.
Conclusion: Outcome of the War with Spain
The war with Spain propelled McKinley and the Republicans to new heights of popularity and solidified American confidence. From 1867 to 1900, the United States had transformed itself from a relatively small, isolationist nation to a bona fide world power.
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