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Chapter 5 |
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Between 1763 and 1783, Americans increasingly rebelled against English rule, declared independence, and finally won the military struggle against the British, establishing the United States of America.
Structure of Colonial Society
At the end of the Seven Years' War, American society, on the whole, was young, optimistic and prosperous, and Americans looked to the future with considerable political and economic expectation. They did not expect revolution or look forward to national independence.
Breakdown of Political Trust
Through the mounting conflict that culminated in 1776, King George III, his ministers, and Parliament based their stance on inaccurate information from the colonies while stubbornly defending Parliament’s “sovereign supreme power over every part of the dominions of state.” It was clear that the colonists and individuals in England did not understand each other or the stakes at hand, and soon compromise became difficult.
No Taxation Without Representation: The American Perspective
The political conflict that emerged after the Seven Years’ War forced the Americans to refine their views on the powers of colonial assemblies, the meaning of representative government, and the freedom from England’s revenue taxation.
Ideas About Power and Virtue
Although many of the political ideals of the American colonists were based on the traditions and theories of John Locke and the Commonwealthmen, their ideology also included a heavy emphasis on religious and moral components that most likely emanated from the Great Awakening. American political ideology found power dangerous unless countered by virtue; to believers political error resulted from corruption and sin.
Eroding the Bonds of Empire
After the war with the French, the British maintained a large military presence in the colonies, which Americans opposed for two reasons: British troops failed to protect the thousands of Americans who died during uprisings by the Native Americans of the backcountry; and after the Proclamation of 1763 was issued, British troops obstructed western settlement.
Paying Off the National Debt
When Grenville insisted that Americans help pay for these British troops with new taxes and restrictions on trade, well-to-do Americans involved in commerce quickly protested it as a scheme that deprived the colonies’ of their right to assess their own taxes.
Popular Protest
The protests of gentlemen grew to a mass movement with opposition to Britain’s Stamp Act. Americans resisted in colonial assemblies, in an inter-colonial “congress,” in the streets, and in an import boycott effected by the Sons of Liberty and by newly mobilized colonial women.
Failed Attempts to Save the Empire
A new English government repealed the offensive Stamp Act while maintaining the principle of “parliamentary supremacy,” including the right to revenue taxation, but the crisis had reduced American respect and loyalty for Britain’s imperial officeholders.
Fueling the Crisis
Townshend’s new ministry tried new taxes on American imports and new enforcement mechanisms, including custom’s commissioners supported by admiralty courts. Americans resisted with a boycott, “rituals of non-consumption,” and a circular letter suggesting ways to thwart the acts.
Fatal Show of Force
A British transfer of troops to Boston heightened tensions ever more, and the colonists again resisted. One confrontation with British troops resulted in the “Boston Massacre,” which became an effective propaganda tool for the American resistance. Parliament, now led by Lord North, tried to stem the tide of colonial agitation by dropping all of the Townshend duties except that on tea, which was left as a symbol of Parliament’s sovereignty.
Lat Days of the Old Order, 1770-1773
A brief period of calm and apparent reconciliation followed the Boston Massacre. But the actions of corrupt imperial officials and the continued agitation of radicals through the establishment of “Committees of Correspondence” brought about a renewal of tensions.
The Final Provocation: The Boston Tea Party
The Boston Tea Party, a colonial response to new English regulations known as the Tea Act, led to the Coercive Acts and American rebellion.
Steps Toward Independence
With the fighting begun, fifty-five American delegates from twelve of the colonies met in a Continental Congress, which Adams soon led into a radical stance which included forcible resistance to the Coercive Acts and a boycott of British imports.
Shots Heard Around the World
Before the Continental Congress reconvened, the first blows of the American Revolution fell at Lexington and Concord.
Beginning “The World Over Again”
The fighting in Massachusetts led to a Second Continental Congress that slowly took control of the American war effort. Though some delegates expressed indecision regarding independence, British action in the passage of the Prohibitory Act and the emergence of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense pushed them to a formal declaration.
Fighting for Independence
English military and economic power might have prevailed had it not been for the logistical problems Britain faced in putting down the colonial rebellion and the degree of American commitment to independence.
Building a Professional Army
The Americans maintained a regular army to symbolize the new country’s independence and to attract foreign support. At the same time colonial militia controlled large areas of the country and compelled support for the patriots’ war effort. While many supported the patriots, thousands of African-American colonists, most of them slaves, took up arms for the British, hoping in either case to gain “unalienable rights” for their services.
Testing the American Will
Washington’s army suffered several serious defeats in New York and New Jersey and was “on the run” by late 1776 with contemporaries predicting defeat.
“Times That Try Men’s Souls”
In 1776 the Americans lost a series of battles in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent Howe from reaching Philadelphia.
Victory in a Year of Defeat
In 1777 the Americans captured Burgoyne’s army at Saratoga, but they lost again at Germantown before digging in for the winter at Valley Forge.
The French Alliance
Exploiting the protracted hostility between the British and the French, American diplomacy, led brilliantly by Benjamin Franklin, turned the American rebellion into a much wider war by persuading the French to offer an alliance founded on their desire for revenge against the British.
The Final Campaign
The final British “southern strategy” let loose a fury. Americans, more determined than ever, dug in and won a final victory at Yorktown.
The Loyalist Dilemma
Many Americans remained loyal to the Crown, often because they feared independence would bring social disorder, which would threaten the very liberties for which their American patriot opponents fought. American hatred and British distrust forced almost one hundred thousand loyalists into bitter flight from their homeland.
Winning the Peace
A highly talented American peace delegation that included Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John Jay, negotiated a very successful treaty with the British, gaining not only independence but also very favorable boundaries and important fishing rights.
Conclusion: Preserving Independence
Having won the war for independence, the Americans still faced many difficulties in shaping a new republican government, having closed “but the first act of the great drama.”
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