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Chapter 7 |
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A debate in the first United States Senate in 1789 over what title to use when addressing George Washington as president revealed the range of political questions to be considered by early politicians, and perhaps foreshadowed later attitudes adopted by rival groups over the proper roles and powers of the new government.
Force of Public Opinion
The Constitution reduced the power granted to states under the Articles of the Confederation yet it increased the power of citizens. As ordinary American voters became keenly interested in political issues and debates, elected officials learned that public opinion, not just the leadership of a social elite, would play a major role in guiding the country's future. This ideology was widely followed by a population that was very interested in the outcome of this debate.
Principle and Pragmatism: Establishing a New Government
In 1789, George Washington began his career as president, an office he managed successfully and with popular approval. Washington established lasting precedents. Congress refined the machinery of government with the creation of executive departments and a federal court system and provided revenue with passage of a tariff act.
Conflicting Visions: Jefferson and Hamilton
In spite of Washington's disdain for political squabbling, Americans began to divide into two camps: the Federalists, led by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, and the Republicans, led by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson. These factions developed and advocated diverse, dynamic, and differing ideas and visions about the role and nature of government, society, economic policy, foreign affiliations, diplomacy, and interpretation of the Constitution.
Hamilton's Plan for Prosperity and Security
Hamilton argued for a strong national government and central economic planning in the hands of the wealthy to ensure order in political and economic affairs. Jefferson feared such a government would become oppressive, threatening states' rights and infringing upon individual liberty. Hamilton wished to transform the United States into a self-sufficient industrial power, while Jefferson hoped the nation would remain one of small, independent farmers.
Funding and Assumption
To signal national solvency and to attract investment capital, Hamilton argued that the national government must fund (repay) the national debt as well as assume any outstanding state debts. Critics argued that the scheme enriched current money speculators at the expense of original investors.
Interpreting the Constitution: The Bank Controversy
Hamilton urged creation of a national bank, owned primarily by private stockholders, to administer the country's finances and supervise its currency. While opponents complained that such a bank was unconstitutional, Hamilton argued that the Constitution should be loosely interpreted to expand the powers of the national government whenever “necessary and proper.”
Setback for Hamilton
Congress passed Hamilton's early financial plans, Madison and Jefferson, however, rallied opponents with a variety of political and moral objections to defeat Hamilton's plan of governmental manufacturing promotion.
Charges of Treason: The Battle Over Foreign Affairs
Jefferson admired the French and hoped that the outbreak of their revolution in 1789 indicated a worldwide republican assault on absolute monarchy and aristocratic privilege. Hamilton cautioned against the anarchic results of excessive democracy and urged closer American ties to Britain.
The Peril of Neutrality
Warfare between Britain and France in 1793 complicated American politics. Britain continued to maintain forts in the United States’ Northwest Territory, began seizing American ships trading in the French West Indies, and impressed suspected British citizens on American ships while on the high seas. The efforts of French minister Edmond Genet to solicit private American aid for the French cause spurred an official Proclamation of Neutrality from President Washington.
Jay's Treaty Sparks Domestic Unrest
To calm diplomatic tension with the British, Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to London to negotiate a settlement of America's numerous grievances. Hamilton forewarned the British that the U.S. would compromise on most issues, therefore the British remained firm on most of their policies. The resultant Jay's Treaty maintained peace, Republican critics, however, denounced it as a “sellout” of American rights.
Pushing the Native Americans Aside
The Federalists regained some popularity with other treaties that extracted major concessions in the West. Indian resistance in the Northwest Territory was crushed and Spain, fearing an American-British alliance, agreed to favorable American terms in the Treaty of San Lorenzo, also called Pinckney's Treaty.
Popular Political Culture
The ratification of Jay’s Treaty sparked and encouraged factionalism in the American political spectrum. Neither the Federalists or the Republicans saw it in their best interest to compromise, and each saw the demise of any opposition as the only solution.
Informing the Public: News and Politics
Newspapers and political clubs emerged to champion either the Republican or Federalist cause. The journals were fiercely partisan, presenting rumor or opinion as fact, while the purpose of the clubs was clearly political indoctrination. Political debates were bitter as each faction became convinced of its choices and increasingly suspicious of the other's wisdom and motives. The Whiskey Rebellion ignited civil unrest and heated political exchanges as Federalists blamed Republicans for unnecessary agitation and violence. Jefferson blamed the Federalists for exploiting the episode to create an army for the purpose of intimidating Republicans.
Washington's Farewell
Washington's “Farewell Address” of 1796 warned Americans to avoid political factions and entangling foreign alliances. Written largely by Hamilton, the address mostly served the Federalist cause in the forthcoming election.
The Adams Presidency
Hamilton's attempt to manipulate the election of 1796 backfired, angering newly elected president John Adams and heightening tensions within the Federalist party.
The XYZ Affair and Domestic Politics
During the first years of Adams's presidency, the relations between the United States and France steadily deteriorated. This period of increasing hostility became known as the Quasi-War. An American commission sent by Adams to pursue a peaceful settlement was met by French officials who arrogantly demanded a bribe as the price for negotiations. This so-called XYZ Affair humiliated and infuriated Americans.
Crushing Political Dissent
The Federalists used the outpouring of anti-French sentiment in America as an excuse to increase the nation's military defenses, a move intended to stifle internal political opposition, as well as thwart French aggression.
Silencing Political Opposition: The Alien and Sedition Acts
Purportedly measures to protect American security, the Alien and Sedition Acts were, in reality, Federalist measures designed to harass Republican spokespersons by disallowing criticism of the government. These blatantly political attempts to silence opposition ultimately proved counterproductive.
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
Jefferson and Madison drafted separate protests known as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions asserting that the individual states had the right to interpret federal law, while labeling the Alien and Sedition Acts as unconstitutional.
Adams's Finest Hour
Having refused to ask Congress for a formal declaration of war against France, Adams pursued peaceful negotiations. The Convention of Mortefontaine ended the Quasi-War and restored good relations between France and the United States, and, moreover, paving the way for the purchase of the Louisiana Territory.
The Peaceful Revolution: The Election of 1800
The Federalists lost office in 1800 partly as a result of internal party disputes, but more importantly, as a result of losing touch with public opinion.
Conclusion: Danger of Political Extremism
The election of 1800 is perhaps most noteworthy for the peaceful transition of government leadership from one political party to that of the opposition, demonstrating that such a process could be accomplished without widespread confusion, villainy, or violence. As Americans would often learn, political extremists are often more interested in private rather than public interests.
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