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Chapter 10 |
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Democratic Space: The New Hotels
The 1820s and 1830s witnessed the rise of popular democracy and a swelling of national political involvement. European visitors were amazed at the equalizing tendencies that were exposed in American legal institutions, clerical professions, and public spaces. Specifically, hotels epitomized a new institution that oftentimes blurred social distinctions. At the same time, hotels revealed the limitations of American democracy: African Americans, Native Americans, and women were generally denied service—just as they were the denied the right to vote.
Democracy in Theory and Practice
The nation's founders had believed that "democracy" contained dangerous impulses, but by the 1820s and '30s the term had become more acceptable and applicable to American institutions. Alexis de Tocqueville noticed the decline of deference and the elevation of popular sovereignty in America. "Self-made" men could now rise in stature.
Democracy and Society
Social equality dominanted the public discourse during this era. Social, economic, and political connections no longer guaranteed success. Industrialization, oftentimes, perpetuated inequality, not in the traditional sense of birth or privilege, but rather in terms of wealth and attainment.
Democratic Culture
Romanticism in American literature often appealed to the feelings and intuitions of ordinary people. A mass reading audience developed, and poets, writers, and artists directed their work to a democratic populace. American artists (although striving to elevate popular tastes) were encouraged to contribute to the general welfare by supporting virtue and middle-class sentiments.
Democratic Political Institutions
By 1820, most states had eliminated property requirements for manhood suffrage, and as public political involvement swelled, a permanent two-party system became a forum for political ideas. It became understood that a "loyal opposition" was essential to democratic government.
Economic Issues
Economic questions (prompted by the Panic of 1819) and the role of the federal government were major concerns that assisted a great swelling of popular political interest. Fears of economic conspiracies engendered fervent outcries for republicanisms survival. The government’s role in guiding the economy inspired debate.
Labor Radicalism and Equal Rights
Workingmen's parties and trade unions emerged as workers became convinced that the government should protect the rights of labor as well as those of the producers. Abolitionists sought an end to slavery and supported the civil rights of free African Americans and women.
Jackson and the Politics of Democracy
Andrew Jackson symbolized the triumph of democracy and egalitarianism from the 1820s to the 1840s.
The Election of 1824 and J.Q. Adams's Administration
Popular hero Andrew Jackson rose to prominence as a result of "popular sovereignty." Despite winning a plurality of popular votes, Jackson was denied the presidency by the House of Representatives, in favor of Adams. Rumors of a "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Henry Clay and controversy over tariff policy damaged Adams’s administration.
Jackson Comes to Power
Supported by the newly organized Democratic party, Jackson returned to defeat Adams convincingly in 1828 in an election that featured a massive popular turnout. Possessed of indomitable will, Jackson became one of the most forceful presidents in history. He endorsed the "spoils system" as a way to provide himself with loyal advisors.
Indian Removal
Beginning in 1830, Jackson ordered the swift and forceful removal of all Indian tribes to reservations located west of the Mississippi River. Jackson ignored humanitarian protests, and the Supreme Court’s ruling that found removal to be unconstitutional. By 1838, the last of the southeastern tribes, the Cherokee, were forced to abandon ancestral grounds and embark on the "Trail of Tears."
The Nullification Crisis
Although an advocate of states' rights, Jackson regarded nullification as a major threat to federal authority. After South Carolina nullified the Tariff Acts of 1828 and 1832 in defiance of federal authority, Jackson threatened forceful intervention to bring the nullification crisis to an end. Appeased by the protests of lower tariffs, South Carolina suspended its nullification ordinance in 1833.
The Bank War and the Second Party System
Jackson's successful attack on the Bank of the United States aroused great controversy and called into question the president's power over the nation's finances. This debate led to a new, national political party: the Whigs.
Mr. Biddle's Bank
When Nicholas Biddle, president of the Bank of the United States, sought a recharter in 1832, Jackson declared war on this "monster" corporation, which he was convinced violated the fundamental principles of a democratic society.
The Bank Veto and the Election of 1832
When Biddle tried to force an early recharter bill through Congress, Jackson responded by vetoing the bill and calling on the people for support. Jackson's overwhelming victory in the 1832 election provided a popular mandate for the Bank's destruction.
Killing the Bank
Jackson proceeded to order that federal deposits in the Bank be removed and deposited in selected "pet banks." Strong opposition to Jackson's fiscal policy developed in Congress as fear spread that the destruction of the Bank would be disastrous for the nation's economy. Opposition to Jackson’s move the Senate to censure the president. Jacksonians in the house blocked the Senate’s action.
The Emergence of the Whigs
Using the cry of "executive usurpation," and opposition party, the Whigs emerged in Jackson's second term. Led by Clay and Daniel Webster, the Whigs opposed the growth of presidential power and prerogative under "King Andrew." Overspeculation and currency devaluation staggered the country's economy, leading Jackson to order the "specie circular," further exacerbating the nation’s economic depression.
The Rise and Fall of Van Buren
Martin Van Buren, with Jackson's endorsement, gained the presidency in 1836. Van Buren attempted to improve the faltering economy with his creation of an "independent subtreasury," but the persistent depression was beyond governmental control. The state of the economy cost Van Buren reelection in 1840 to the Whig candidate William Henry Harrison.
Heyday of the Second Party System
Promoting a "positive liberal state," the Whigs challenged the Democrats on equal terms in the 1840s. The Whigs supported an active and responsive government to the nation’s economy. Although they supported a market economy, the Whigs wanted to restrain disorder and selfish individualism by enforcing high moral standards and community values. Democrats appealed to small farmers, workers, rising capitalists, immigrants, and Catholics by supporting individualism and personal liberty.
Conclusion: Toqueville's Wisdom
Although De Toqueville was impressed by the American talent for local self-government, he keenly observed "White man's democracy” limitations: women’s restricted roles, and the continued oppression of people of color.
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