"Judgment Belongs to God Alone": The Battle and Arbitration at Siffin

On a spring day in 657, two Muslim armies confronted each other at Siffin, a village on the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia. The armies were commanded by men who had been longtime rivals, the Caliph Ali (r.Ê656–661) and Muawiya, the governor of Syria. Their rivalry stemmed from Muawiya's refusal to accept Ali's authority as caliph. The Battle of Siffin became a defining moment in the development of the Islamic state. Basic Islamic ideas about divine judgment were put to the test, leading to passionate debate about how God makes his judgment known to Muslims.

Taking It Further

• W. M. Watt. The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. 1973. This account discusses the formation of sects and political groups in early Islamic history.
  
  
• http://www.molthagen.de/answering-islam/Main/Books/Muir/Caliphate/chap37.htm
  In-depth analysis of the Battle of Siffin from an academic historical perspective.
  
  
• http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/schacht.html
  Treatise on Islamic Law and Justice.