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The questions are designed so that students can respond in writing, and can be applied to almost any image. That is, rather than dividing up lessons into different kinds of images (landscapes, portraits, etc.), instructors may want to introduce the following concepts, and then apply them to images throughout the book.
How to talk about images: An introduction
Unlike written arguments, visual images have an immediate impact that often transcends words. Think about the first time you saw the image of Space Shuttle Columbia breaking up as it reentered the earth's atmosphere, or the gaping holes in the World Trade Center after the hijacked planes slammed into the Twin Towers. In both cases, terrible tragedies were framed by a brilliant blue sky that suggested a crisp, beautiful day. This paradox of a horrible disaster occurring on a dazzling morning made the events difficult to fathom; we didn't know what to make of the images at first.
Because it was not immediately apparent what had caused these disasters, you probably experienced a range of reactions—from fear to sympathy to anger—when you first saw them. As time progressed, however, people began to use these powerful images to make arguments and appeal to certain emotions over others. In fact, the same images from September 11, 2001, have been used to argue opposing viewpoints. Some people have used these images to argue for expanding the war against terrorism, for example, while others, such as Michael Moore in Fahrenheit 9/11, have used the same images to argue against the Bush Administration. On a less serious note, you might notice how the same phenomenon happens with a brand name such as Nike. To some people, the very image of the "swoosh" signifies cool, while others see it as a symbol of sweatshop labor and exploitation.
How can the same images be used in such disparate ways? One piece to the puzzle is the community of viewers, or audience, that views the image. Understanding how and why images are used to make arguments is the key to achieving visual literacy and becoming more critically aware of the role of images in society. By this, we simply mean that our understanding of visuals becomes as nuanced and complex as our understanding of words—that we become literate in images and their interaction with audiences. In traditional rhetoric, we focus on the ways in which language is shaped to craft arguments and appeal to certain audiences through reason, emotions and values. We can do the same thing with visuals by focusing on:
creation and authorship
This forces us to consider who crafted the image and what their agenda might be. Visuals don't occur in a vacuum; they have authors and intentions. In considering who created the image and why, we can understand its argument more fully.
audience and reception
Different audiences often have opposed reactions to the same image. Because of this, creators of images craft their images to appeal to different audiences. We can analyze who the intended audience of a given visual is by paying attention to the ways in which image appeals to a value of an audience. Consider, for example, how advertisers focus on one ethnic group to market a product.
message and argument
Some visuals, like political advertisements, make very clear-cut arguments; an ad featuring a presidential candidate holding a baby means the candidate cares about families. Other arguments are more subtle and require a more careful analysis; they use implication and suggestion.
composition and design
Just as authors of written arguments rely on sentence and paragraph structure to organize their ideas, composers of visuals use framing, editing, and sequencing (or narrative) to persuade viewers. How an image is framed can make a world of difference in how the audience understands it.
history and context
Many iconic images can be reinterpreted or recycled to make an argument. When Andy Warhol reproduced classic images of Campbell's soup cans, for example, the image of the can became an ironic commentary on mass culture. By considering the history and context of a visual, we can understand how the meaning and message of an image changes over time.
Questions for class discussion
Creation and authorship
1. Can you tell who created this image? If so, can you tell what the creator's attitude toward the image is?
2. Describe all the different media involved in this image (videos, graphs, words, art, photos). If there are written words in the image, describe the relationship between the image and the text; for example, do the words contradict or reinforce the image?
Audience and reception
3. What does the image assume its audience knows? Is the image like an inside joke that only certain people will understand? Who are those people?
4. Describe your impression of the image. How does it make you feel?
5. If the image depicts identifiable people, places and things, does it evoke positive or negative feelings about those things?
Message and argument
6. What is the image's argument?
7. What values, beliefs or ideals does it suggest? Sex appeal or Platonic love? Wealth or poverty? Hatred or warmth? Desire? Envy? Nostalgia? Repulsion? Something else?
8. Does the image appeal to values or beliefs that you hold dear? How so?
Composition and Design
9. How is the image composed? How are we supposed to "read" it? Right to left? Center to periphery? Top to bottom?
10. Are certain elements stressed above other elements in the composition of the image? What is foregrounded and what is backgrounded?
11. Do any elements seem out place or distracting? Why?
12. Is there anything surprising or shocking about this image?
History and Context
13. How do you think the meaning of this image has changed over time? Would your parents or grandparents react to it in a different way? Why?
14. Would you describe the image as realistic, abstract, dreamy, or iconic? Something else?
15. Are you invited to learn more or read further about this image? Does it invite you in or push you away?
Assignment Ideas
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