Glossary

Abstraction, levels of Distinguished in two ways: in the range between the general and the specific and in the range between the abstract and the concrete.

A general word refers to a class, genus, or group; a specific word refers to a member of that group. Ship is a general word, but ketch, schooner, liner, and tugboat are specific. The terms general and specific are relative, however, not absolute. On the one hand, ketch is more specific than ship, because a ketch is a kind of ship. But on the other hand, ketch is more general than Tahiti ketch, because a Tahiti ketch is a kind of ketch.

The distinction between the abstract and the concrete also is relative. Ideas, qualities, and characteristics that do not exist by themselves are abstract; physical things such as house, shoes, and horse are concrete. Concrete words can range not only further into the specific (bungalow, moccasin, and stallion) but also back toward the general (domicile, clothing, and horses). These distinctions between the abstract and the concrete and between the general and the specific do not imply that good writing should be specific and concrete and that poor writing is general and abstract. Most good writing constantly moves from the general to the specific and from the abstract to the concrete as the situation demands.

Allusion Reference to a familiar person, place, or thing, whether real or imaginary: Woodrow Wilson or Zeus evoke leadership and male power, Siam or Atlantis evoke exotic locales, kangaroo or phoenix evoke a comtemplation of the wonder of wildlife. The allusion is an economical way to evoke an atmosphere, a historical era, or an emotion.

Analogy In exposition, usually a comparison of some length in which the unknown is explained in terms of the known, the unfamiliar in terms of the familiar, the remote in terms of the immediate.

In argument, an analogy consists of a series of likenesses between two or more dissimilar things, demonstrating that they are either similar or identical in other respects; however, these types of analogies can be flawed, because two things alike in many respects are not necessarily alike in all (for example, lampblack and diamonds are both pure carbon; they differ only in their crystal structure. Although analogy never proves anything, its dramatic quality, its assistance in establishing tone, and its vividness make it one of the writers most valuable techniques.

Analysis A method of exposition by logical division, applicable to anything that can be divided into component parts: an object, such as an automobile or a watch; an institution, such as a college; or a process, such as mining coal or writing a poem. These parts or processes may be described technically and factually or impressionistically and selectively. In the latter method, the parts are organized in relation to a single governing idea so that the mutually supporting function of each of the components in the total structure becomes clear to the reader. For example, the actors, director, script, music score, and special effects are all part of a whole motion picture. Parts may be explained in terms of their characteristic function. Analysis may also be concerned with the connection of events; for example, given this condition or series of conditions, what effects will follow? For example, if a country in a recession, with high taxes and high unemployment, goes to war, what will happen to the economy?

Argument Often contains the following parts: the proposition, an assertion that leads to the issue; the issue, what the writer is attempting to prove and the question on which the whole argument rests; and the evidence, the facts and opinions that the author offers as testimony. The evidence can be ordered deductively, by proceeding logically from certain premises and reaching a conclusion, or inductively, by generalizing from several instances and drawing a conclusion. Informal arguments frequently make greater use of the methods of exposition than they do of formal logic—for example, employing statistics, scientific theorems, or laws to further their case. See Analogy, Deductive Reasoning, and Inductive Reasoning.

It is possible to distinguish between argument and persuasion by the means (argument appeals to reason; persuasion, to emotions) or the ends (argument can change a mind; persuasion can lead to action). These distinctions, however, are more academic than functional, for in practice, argument and persuasion are not discrete entities. Yet the proof in argument rests largely upon the objectivity of evidence; the proof in persuasion, upon the heightened use of language.

Assumption That part of an argument that is unstated because it is either taken for granted by the reader and writer or it is undetected by them. For example, author are not always aware of their prejudices or gaps in knowledge, and it hurts their arguments when these flaws go undetected. When the reader consciously disagrees with an assumption, the writer has misjudged his audience by assuming what the reader refuses to concede. An example of this is a writer, who assumes that British men are stuffy and sexist, writes an essay that British men (and those who disagree with the notion that all members of a single group can be described as all alike) are unlikely to agree with or enjoy.

Audience For the writer, his expected readers. When the audience is unknown, and the subject matter is closely related to the writers opinions, preferences, attitudes, and tastes, then the writers relationship to his audience is his relationship to himself. The writer who distrusts the intelligence of his audience or adapts his material to what he assumes are the tastes and interests of his readers has disguised his authorial voice to the point where it is hard for the reader to feel as close a kinship with him as with a writer with more confessional and less commercialized (or mediated) style.

It is now necessary to warn the writer that his concern for the reader must be pure; he must sympathize with the readers plight (most readers are in trouble about half the time) but never seek to know his wants. The whole duty of a writer is to please and satisfy himself, and the true writer always plays to an audience of one. Let him start sniffing the air, or glancing at the Trend Machine, and he is as good as dead although he may make a nice living. Strunk and White, The Elements of Style (Macmillan).

On the other hand, when the audience is known (a college class, for example), and the subject matter is factual information, the writer should consider the education, interests, and tastes of her audience. Unless she keeps a definite audience in mind, the beginner is apt to shift levels of usage, employ inappropriate diction, and lose the readers if she does not appeal to any of their interests.

Cause and Effect A seemingly simple method of development in which a connection is drawn between an event and its trigger. However, because of the philosophical difficulties surrounding causality, the writer should be cautious in ascribing causes. For the explanation of most effects, it is probably safer to proceed in a sequential order, using transitional words to indicate the order of the process. For example, it is a fact that the American Civil War followed the election of President Lincoln, but it is not necessarliy true to say that the election of Lincoln caused the Civil War.

Classification The division of a whole into the classes that compose it, or the placement of a subject into its appropriate whole. See Analysis and Definition.

Coherence Literally, a sticking together; therefore, the joining or linking of one point to another. It is the writers obligation to make clear to the reader the relationship of sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph. There are several ways to do this. A writer can achieve coherence by putting the parts in a sequence that is meaningful and relevant—logical sequence, chronological order, order of importance. Or a writer can obtain coherence between parts by using transitional words—but, however, yet—to inform the reader that what is to follow contrasts with what went before; and furthermore, moreover, in addition to continue or expand what went before.

Another basic way of achieving coherence is to enumerate ideas to remind the reader of the development—first, second, third. A more subtle transition is to repeat at the beginning of a paragraph a key word or idea from the end of the preceding paragraph. Such a transition reminds readers of what has gone before and simultaneously prepares them for what is to come.

Comparison and Contrast The presentation of a subject by indicating similarities between two or more things (comparison) or by indicating differences (contrast). Often comparison and contrast are used in definition and other methods of exposition.

Concreteness See Abstraction, levels of.

Connotation All that the word suggests or implies in addition to its literal meaning. For example, the word odor technically can suggest any scent, but common usage has led the listener to assume that is means (or connotes) a foul smell.

Contrast See Comparison and Contrast.

Coordination Elements of similar importance in similar grammatical construction. More important elements should be placed in grammatically dominant positions. This arrangement makes writing easier to understand and enjoy because the work is organized logically and flows. See Parallelism and Subordination.

Deductive Reasoning In logic, the application of a generalization to a particular; in rhetoric, development that moves from the general to the specific.

Definition In logic, the placing of the word to be defined in a general class and then showing how it differs from other members of the class. In rhetoric, the meaningful extension (usually enriched by the use of detail, concrete illustration, anecdote, metaphor) of a logical definition to answer fully, clearly, and often implicitly the question, What is—?

Denotation The literal meaning of a word. See Connotation.

Description Presenting factual information about an object or experience (objective description); or reporting the impression or evaluation of an object or experience (subjective description). Most description combines the two purposes. For example, It was a frightening night: an evaluation with which others might disagree; The wind blew the shingles off the north side of the house and drove the rain under the door: two facts about which there can be little disagreement.

Diction Style as determined by choice of words. Good diction is characterized by accuracy and appropriateness to subject matter; weak diction, by the use of inappropriate, vague, or trite words. The relationship between the kinds of words a writer selects and his subject matter in large part determines tone. The deliberate use of inappropriate diction is a frequent device of satire.

Discourse, forms of Traditionally, exposition, argument, description, and narration. See entries under each. These four kinds of traditional discourse are rarely found in a pure form. Argument and exposition may be interfused in the most complex fashion. Exposition often employs narration and description for purposes of illustration. In an effective piece of writing, the use of more than one form of discourse is never accidental; it always serves the authors central purpose.

Emphasis The arrangement of the elements in a piece of writing so that the important meanings occur in structurally important parts of the work. Repetition, order of increasing importance, exclamation points, rhetorical questions, and figures of speech are all devices to achieve emphasis.

Evidence That part of argument or persuasion that involves proof. It usually takes the form of facts, particulars deduced from general principles, or opinions of authorities.

Exposition That form of discourse that explains or informs. Most papers required of college students are expository. The methods of exposition presented in The Conscious Reader are identification, definition, classification, illustration, comparison and contrast, and analysis. See separate entries in the glossary.

Figure of Speech A form of expression in which the meanings of words are extended beyond the literal. The common figures of speech are metaphor, simile, and analogy.

Generalization A broad conception or principle derived from particulars. Often, simply a broad statement. See Abstraction, levels of.

Grammar A systematic description of a language. The organizing principle of a language that gives it shape and provides rules for proper usage.

Identification A process preliminary to definition of a subject. For the writer, it is that important period preliminary to writing when, wrestling with inchoate glimmerings, she begins to select and shape her materials. As a method of exposition, it brings the subject into focus by describing it.

Illustration A particular member of a class used to explain or dramatize a class, a type, a thing, a person, a method, an idea, or a condition. The idea explained may be either stated or implied. For purposes of illustration, the individual member of a class must be a fair representation of the distinctive qualities of the class. The use of illustrations, examples, and specific instances adds to the concreteness and vividness of writing. See Narration.

Image A word or statement that makes an appeal to the senses—sense impressions. Thus, there are visual images, auditory images, and so on. Because the most direct experience of the world is through the senses, writing that uses unexpected examples of sense impressions can be unusually effective.

Inductive Reasoning In logic, the formulation of a conclusion after the observation of an adequate number of particular instances; in rhetoric, the development of an idea or concept that moves from the particular to the general.

Intention The reason a piece of writing was first written—its goal. For example, some works are written to convince; others, to entertain; others, to teach; and others, to provoke thought or action. It is often wise to try to determine a works intent to best understand your reaction to it.

Irony At its simplest, involves a discrepancy between literal and intended meaning; at its most complex, it involves an utterance more meaningful (and usually meaningful in a different way) to the listener than to the speaker. For example, the audience understands Oedipus remarks about discovering the murderer of the king in a way Oedipus himself cannot understand. The satirist frequently feigns the inability to grasp the full implications of his own remarks.

Issue Limiting the general proposition to the precise point on which the argument rests. Defeating this point—the issue—defeats the argument. Typically the main proposition of an argument will raise at least one issue for discussion and controversy.

Limitation of Subject Restriction of the subject to one centralizing subject or idea that can be adequately developed with reference to audience and purpose.

Metaphor An implied comparison between two things that are seemingly different; a compressed analogy. Effectively used, metaphors increase clarity, interest, vividness, and concreteness.

Narration A form of discourse that tells a story. If a story is significant in itself, and the particulars appeal to the imagination, it is narration. If a story illustrates a point in exposition or argument, it is illustrative narration. If a story outlines a process step by step, the particulars appealing to the understanding, it is expository narration.

Organization, methods of Varies with the form of discourse. Exposition uses in part, in whole, or in combination the organizational methods identification, definition, classification, illustration, comparison and contrast, and analysis. Argument and persuasion often use the method of organization of inductive or deductive reasoning, or analogy. Description is often organized around a dominant idea or object. Narration, to give two examples, may be organized chronologically or in terms of point of view.

Paradox An assertion or sentiment seemingly self-contradictory, or opposed to common sense, that may yet be true. For example, Thomas Jefferson was a slave owner who wrote that all men are created equal.

Paragraph A division of writing that serves to discuss one topic or one aspect of a topic. The central thought is either implied or expressed in a topic sentence, and the rest of the paragraph describes that thought. Most pieces of writing are composed of several paragraphs that are organized in some coherent scheme. See Coherence.

Parallelism Elements of similar rhetorical importance in similar grammatical patterns. See Coordination.

Parody Mimicking the language and style of another in a gently humorous or critical style. For example, the Austin Powers movies faithfully recreate characters, scenes, and dialogue from the James Bond films—the better to mock James Bond. The same technique is used in literature when mark Twain writes like James Fenimore Cooper in order to illustrate why he feels that Cooper is a poor novelist.

Perspective The vantage point chosen by the writer to achieve his purpose, his strategy. It is reflected in his close scrutiny of, or distance from, his subject; his objective representation or subjective interpretation of it. For example, a writer describing a football game may objectively describe both teams feelings and actions fairly, or subjectively cast one team as heroic and another a villainous. See Diction, Purpose, Tone.

Persuasion A rhetorical technique that often uses heightened language designed to appeal to the emotions or prompt the listener to take action. See Argument.

Point of View In description, the position from which the observer looks at the object described; in narration, the person who sees the action, who tells the story; in exposition, the ideological starting point of the composition. First person or third person are the most commonly used points of view.

Proposition See Argument.

Purpose What the writer wants to accomplish with a particular piece of writing.

Rhetoric The art of using language effectively

Rhetorical Question A question asked to induce thought and to provide emphasis rather than to evoke an answer.

Rhythm In poetry and prose, patterned emphasis.

Satire The attempt to effect reform by exposing an object to laughter. For example, Charles Dickens convinced the government to pass laws protecting children by satirizing in his novels a Victorian England that mistreated the young. Satire makes frequent recourse to irony, wit, ridicule, and parody. It is usually classified under such categories as social satire, personal satire, and literary satire.

Style The essence of a sound style is that it cannot be reduced to rules—that it is a living and breathing thing, with something of the demoniacal in it—that it fits its proprietor tightly and yet ever so loosely, as his skin fits him. It is, in fact, quite as securely an integral part of him as that skin is. In brief, a style is always the outward and visible symbol of a man, and it cannot be anything else. H. L. Mencken, from On Style.

Young writers often suppose that style is a garnish for the meat of prose, a sauce by which a dull dish is made palatable. Style has no such separate entity; it is nondetachable, unfilterable. The beginner should approach style warily, realizing that it is himself he is approaching, no other; and he should begin by turning resolutely away from all devices that are popularly believed to indicate style—all mannerisms, tricks, adornments. The approach to style is by way of plainness, simplicity, orderliness, sincerity. Strunk and White from The Elements of Style (Macmillan)

Subordination Less important rhetorical elements in grammatically subordinate positions. See Coordination and Parallelism.

Syllogism In formal logic, a deductive argument in three steps: a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. The major premise states a quality of a class (All men are mortal); the minor premise states that X is a member of the class (Socrates is a man); the conclusion states that the quality of a class is also a quality of a member of the class (Socrates is mortal). In rhetoric, the full syllogism is rarely used; instead, one of the premises is usually omitted. You can rely on her; she is independent is an abbreviated syllogism. Major premise: Independent people are reliable; minor premise: She is independent; conclusion: She is reliable. Constructing the full syllogism frequently reveals flaws in reasoning, such as the above, which has an error in the major premise.

Symbol A concrete image that suggests a meaning beyond itself. For example, a cross symbolizes Christianity; a peace symbol symbolizes the hippie movement of the 1960s; and a dove often symbolizes purity, divinity, or peace.

Tone The manner in which the writer communicates his feelings or ideas about the materials he is presenting. Diction is the most obvious means of establishing tone. Satire and connotation are others. See Diction.

Topic Sentence The thesis that the paragraph as a whole develops, encapsulated in one concise statement. Some paragraphs do not have topic sentences, but the thesis is implied through tone or arrangement of relevant information.

Transition The linking together of sentences, paragraphs, and larger parts of the composition to achieve coherence by making logical connections (thematic and/or grammatical) between them. See Coherence.

Unity The relevance of selected material to the central theme of an essay. See Coherence.