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Chapter 36: Globalization and Resistance: World History 1990–2003 |
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The End of the Cold War. By the 1980s, reforms began a process ending in the disintegration of the Soviet empire and the end of communism in eastern Europe. Conservative and untalented Soviet leaders were unable to solve growing problems. To counter the threat of Islamic fervor unleashed by the Iranian revolution, the Soviets in 1979 invaded Afghanistan and became caught in an unpopular and expensive war. Western Europe’s successful economy put Communism on the defensive in eastern Europe. China demonstrated how a communist authoritarian nation could flourish by joining the international economy. The United States increased its pressure on the Soviets by large increases in military spending and interventions in favor of anti-Marxist regimes.
The Explosion of the 1980s and 1990s. By the mid-1980s, the intense rivalry with the United States contributed to a deteriorating Soviet economy. Forced industrialization had caused extensive environmental disaster throughout eastern Europe. Related diseases impaired morale and economic performance. Infant mortality rates soared. Industrial production slowed and economic growth stopped, but one-third of national income continued to go to military production. Younger leaders recognized that the system might collapse.
The Age of Reform. In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev introduced reforms. He urged nuclear reduction and negotiated with the United States a limitation of medium-range missiles in Europe. The war in Afghanistan was ended by Soviet withdrawal. Internally Gorbachev proclaimed glasnost, or openness, the freedom to comment and criticize. He urged use of market incentives and reduction of bureaucratic controls. But strong limits on political freedom remained and the centralized planning apparatus resisted reform. Gorbachev’s policies partly reflected an ambivalence about the West as he reduced isolation but still criticized Western values. He wanted reform, not abandonment, of basic Communist controls. The keynote to reform was perestroika, or economic restructuring. This meant more private ownership and decentralized control of aspects of the economy. Foreign investment was encouraged and military expenditures were reduced to free resources for consumer goods. In 1988 a new constitution gave considerable power to a parliament and abolished the Communist monopoly of elections. Gorbachev was elected to a new and powerful presidency in 1990 as people argued for or against reform. The economic and political conditions provoked agitation among minority nationalities; some demanded independence.
Dismantling the Soviet Empire. The states of Eastern Europe took advantage of the new times to seek independence and internal reform. Soviet troops were withdrawn. Bulgaria arranged free elections in 1989; Hungary and Poland in 1988 installed non-communist governments and moved toward a free economy. Czechoslovakia did the same in 1989. East Germany in 1989 removed its Communist leaders; the Berlin Wall came down and full German unification occurred in 1991. The only violence occurred in Romania when an authoritarian ruler was overthrown. The Communists retained power, through elections, in Bulgaria and Romania; in Albania a more flexible Communist regime took control. The new situation in Eastern Europe was marred by ethnic clashes. Yugoslavia fell apart and brutal fighting broke out among its former components. The new governments faced serious economic and environmental problems.
Renewed Turmoil in 1991 and 1992. In 1991 Gorbachev survived an attempted coup because of popular support. Central authority weakened. Minority republics sought independence and the Baltic republics gained independence. By the end of 1991 the Soviet Union had been replaced by a loose union of republics. Gorbachev had resigned and was replaced by Boris Yeltsin. Economic and political tensions were rampant. By the late 1990s Yeltsin had lost support and was succeeded by Vladimir Putin. He pledged reforms and commitment to democracy. Debate continued over the future of Russian society.
The Spread of Democracy. From the late 1970s multiparty democracy had spread to many new regions. The Cold War's close reduced the need for great power support of authoritarian regimes. China and the Middle East remained exceptions. Questions about democracy’s future persisted because of uncertain economic futures.
The Great Powers and New Disputes. The United States became the sole superpower, while Russia's power dramatically declined. Other nations were unhappy with the new single-power dominance, but efforts at alliances did not change the situation. The United States pushed its political and economic model, and worked against potential threats from smaller nations. It intervened in regional conflicts, as in the Persian Gulf War of 1991 and in the Balkans. The terrorist attacks on the United States in 2001 raised new issues. The United States responded by changing the Islamic fundamentalist regime in Afghanistan.
Regional Disputes and Alliances. Many long-enduring regional rivalries became more acute when United States-Soviet rivalry ended. New regional cooperative efforts emerged. NATO, joined by former eastern block members, had to find a new role. The European Union continued to expand. During the 1990s the United States, Canada, and Mexico formed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Regional conflicts persisted. Iran and Iraq fought a long and costly war, and in 2003 the United States and Britain conquered Sadam Hussein’s Iraq. Israeli-Palestinian violence continued. Pakistan and India remained unable to settle the dispute over Kashmir; by 2000 both had tested nuclear weapons.
Ethnic Conflict. A surge in ethnic conflict was prominent in the post-cold war era. Increased global interaction and the collapse of multinational nations, generated hostilities. In Europe, ethnic groups gained new opportunities for expression and movements arose to limit immigration. Czechoslovakia peacefully divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, but other states proceeded less peacefully. The Muslim region of Chechnya in Russia declared independence in 1990 and a persisting harsh conflict followed. The foremost example of a multiethnic state’s collapse was Yugoslavia during the 1990s. An international military force intervened to impose peace. Another intervention was required to halt strife in Kosovo. The 1990s also witnessed African disorder in Rwanda, Sudan, Sierra Leone, and Liberia.
In Depth: How Much Historical Change? Many analysts expected major shifts in human affairs when the Cold War terminated. Some thought about an “end of history” concept; democracy would sweep the world and the need to query basic political institutions was over. It would be a more peaceful era since democracies did not fight each other. A related argument emphasized that consumer capitalism would spread a prosperity that no one wanted to jeopardize. Such predictions cannot be proved.
Globalization. By the early 21st century, the unfolding of globalization - the increasing interconnectedness of all world parts - reflected the close of the Cold War and the lessening of international conflict, a movement to free markets, new technical developments (especially the computer), and a general acceptance of global connections. Complicating factors to globalization were lingering nationalism, an important religious surge, persisting nationalism, and terrorism.
The New Technology. New developments made the possible the widespread use of the cellular phone, computers, and satellite linkages for television.
Business Organization and Investment. International investment has accelerated significantly. Exports and imports have increased and multinational corporations have extended business organization across political boundaries. They continue the search for cheap raw materials, and invest in nations with high interest rates. Because of their resources, multinational companies were able to determine policies in weaker nations. Even as they polluted the environment, multinationals promoted industrial skills and brought more-enlightened labor policies. Their long-term impact is unknown.
Migration. During the 1990s, past international migration patterns continued. Countries with negative population growth needed new, lower-skilled workers. Their arrival resulted in tensions between local populations and the new arrivals.
Cultural Globalization. Cultural contact and exchange accelerated by the close of the 1990s. A path to worldwide homogeneity has been caused by the adoption of Western cultural values, art forms, consumer goods, and the English language. Other cultures also contributed to the homogeneity. Models often were adapted to local cultures.
Institutions of Globalization. Political forms globalized slower than technology, business, and consumer culture. The United Nations, with mixed success, attempted to calm conflicts and help refugee populations. It similarly dealt with gender and population control issues, and combated the AIDS epidemic. The importance of other international organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) grew. So did regional economic arrangements.
Protest and Economic Uncertainties. A vigorous international anti-globalization movement appeared by the end of the 1990s. They thought economic development was threatening the environment, exploited cheap labor, and promoted rampant consumerism. Rich nations and the wealthy, it was alleged, benefited at the expense of most people. Some world regions suffered as unfavorable trade balances damaged their economies. Reform efforts by international organizations, such as the World Bank, might increase unemployment. Many decided that globalization hurt more than it helped.
A World of Religious and Ethnic Conflict. A resurgence of particular loyalties complicated globalization. Nationalism, sub-national loyalties, and religious differences all helped stimulate intolerance or violence.
Religious Revivals. Religious movements, often opposed to sexuality, freedom for women, and consumerism, reacted against globalization as they insisted on their distinctiveness. New vigor came to Orthodox Christianity, Protestant fundamentalism, Hinduism, and Islam. Impoverished groups not succeeding in the global economy proved receptive.
Global Terrorism. International terrorism, utilizing some of the apparatus of globalization, grew after 2000. Minority national movements or religious groups turned to civilian targets to undermine despised regimes. Terrorism brought heavy government retaliation, but the measures did not eradicate the threat.
Global Warming and Other Perils. The opening of the communist world demonstrated that extreme economic devastation had occurred. Policies followed in China, southeast Asia, Brazil, and sub-Saharan Africa appeared equally dangerous. Economic development strategies designed to assist growth in many less-developed regions have failed to raise living standards or environmental damage. In 2000, the wealthiest one-fifth of humanity dominated consumption and produced the most pollution. No solutions were in sight.
Environmental Issues as Global Concerns. Environmental issues are now focal points of debate and government policy. The greenhouse effect has led to substantial warming and could have massively damaging effects. Major international conferences have addressed the problem, but governments have been slow to respond to measures that might damage their economies.
Disease. As in the past, global contacts have involved disease. AIDS spread rapidly from the 1980s. Results so far are less severe than earlier epidemics.
Toward the Future. History has demonstrated that efforts to predict the future will fail, but it does allow a basis for thinking about what will occur.
Projecting from Trends. What trends will continue? We do know that population growth will decline and that individuals will live longer. But unexpected happenings might alter the trend. The fate of democracies, based on past experiences, remains murky. How the mutual trends of mass consumerism and increased religious interest will interact is equally uncertain.
Big Changes. Some thinkers look to major departures from past developments. The 1960s “population bomb” was one such argument. Although that prediction failed, others have taken its place. Another postulation, for a postindustrial world, is still being argued.
The Problem of the Contemporary Period. The many changes occurring in world history during the 20th century make prediction difficult. Western dominance is past, but what will replace it? The same uncertainty applies to the status of women.
Global Connections: Civilizations and Global Forces. How will individual civilization develop in the future? The key civilizations have been shaping world history for a millennia. It now appears that separate characteristics of civilizations are merging and being replaced by global loyalties. But it is clear that individual civilizations retain principal characteristics. It probably is premature to postulate global homogeneity.
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